Settler colonialism and the elimination of the native

The factor that most antagonized the Georgia state government was not recalcitrant savagery but the Cherokee's unmistakable aptitude for civilization.

“the factor that most antagonized the Georgia state government (with the at-least-tacit support of Andrew Jackson's federal administration) was not actually the recalcitrant savagery of which Indians were routinely accused, but the Cherokee's unmistakable aptitude for civilization.”

Reformers' justifications for the allotment process repeatedly included the express intention to destroy the tribe in whole.

“Throughout this process, reformers' justifications for it (saving the Indian from the tribe, giving him the same opportunities as the White man, etc.) repeatedly included the express intention to destroy the tribe in whole.60”

• cites [60] 60. Statistical Abstract of the United States (Washington, DC: US Bureau of the Census, Department of Commerce, 1955), p 180.Not matched

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In the half-century from 1881, the total acreage held by Indians in the United States fell by two thirds, from just over 155 million acres to just over 52 million.

“In the half-century from 1881, the total acreage held by Indians in the United States fell by two thirds, from just over 155 million acres to just over 52 million.59”

• cites [59] 59. John R. Wunder, "Retained by the People": A History of American Indians and the Bill of Rights (New York: Oxford U.P. 1994), pp 17, 39.Not matched

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At the height of the Dawes-era assimilation programme, in the decade after Pratt's Denver paper, Indian numbers hit the lowest level they would ever register.

“At the height of the Dawes-era assimilation programme, for instance, in the decade after Richard Pratt penned his Denver paper, Indian numbers hit the lowest level they would ever register.50”

• cites [50] 50. "In 1998-2000, life expectancy for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples was shorter by 21 years for males and 20 years for females, compared with the total population . . . In 1998-2000, the death rate for Indi- genous infants was around four times the rate in the total population." Australian Bureau of Statistics, Aus- tralian Social Trends: Health-Mortality and Morbidity: Mortality of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples (Canberra: Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2002), p 1. See also: House of Representatives Standing Committee on Family and Community Affairs, Health iNot matched

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The centrepiece of this campaign was the allotment programme, first generalized as Indian policy in the Dawes Severalty Act of 1887, whereby tribal land was broken down into individual allotments whose proprietors could eventually sell them to White people.

“The centrepiece of this campaign was the allotment programme, first generalized as Indian policy in the Dawes Severalty Act of 1887 and subsequently intensified and extended, whereby tribal land was to be broken down into individual allotments whose proprietors could eventually sell them to White people.58”

• cites [58] 58. Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock, 187 US 1903, p 553. SETTLER COLONIALISMNot matched

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The first major expression of this shift was the discontinuation of treaty-making in 1871.

“The first major expression of this shift was the discontinuation of treaty-making, which came about in 1871.55”

• cites [55] 55. "No Indian nation or tribe within the territory of the United States shall be acknowledged or recognized as an independent nation, tribe, or power with whom the United States may contract by treaty." 16 Stat., 566 (Act of March 3, 1871), c 120, sNot matched

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As practised by Europeans, both genocide and settler colonialism have typically employed the organizing grammar of race.

“As practised by Europeans, both genocide and settler colonialism have typically employed the organizing grammar of race.”

In settler-colonial terms, agriculture enables a population to be expanded by continuing immigration at the expense of native lands and livelihoods.

“In settlercolonial terms, this enables a population to be expanded by continuing immigration at the expense of native lands and livelihoods.”

The doctrine of discovery was primarily addressed to relations between European sovereigns rather than to relations between Europeans and natives.

“Though a thoroughgoing diminution of native entitlement was axiomatic to discovery, the discourse was primarily addressed to relations between European sovereigns rather than to relations between Europeans and natives.”

• cites [17] 17. As Mr Justice Johnson put it in his concurrence with Chief Justice Marshall's judgment in Cherokee v. Georgia, "The hunter state bore within itself the promise of vacating the territory, because when game ceased, the hunter would go elsewhere to seek it. But a more fixed state of society would amount to a permanent destruction of the hope, and, of consequence, of the beneficial character of the pre-emptive right." Cherokee v. Georgia, 30 US (5 Peters) 1, 1831, p 23. 20 The judgments most often cited in this connection are Worcester v. Georgia, 31 US (6 Peters) 515, 1832, Crow Dog, 109 US 5Not matched

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The logic of elimination continues into the present.

“As observed, the logic of elimination continues into the present.”

On its importation into Palestine, productivization evolved into a tool of ethnic conflict, as Jewish industries were actively discouraged from employing non-Jewish labour.

“On its importation into Palestine, however, the doctrine evolved into a tool of ethnic conflict, as Jewish industries were actively discouraged from employing non-Jewish labour”

• cites [14] 14. This observation unites almost all commentators, whatever their political inclination. Cf. e.g. Anthony Anghie, "Finding the peripheries: sovereignty and colonialism in nineteenth-century international law," Harvard International Law Journal, Vol 40, 1999, pp 1-80, at p 69;Not matched

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Settler colonialism is not simply a form of genocide.

“Yet this is not to say that settler colonialism is simply a form of genocide.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: In some settler-colonial sites such as Fiji, native society was able to accommodate the invaders and the transformative socioeconomic system they introduced.

Settler colonialism was foundational to modernity.

“Settler colonialism was foundational to modernity.”

Black people's enslavement produced an inclusive taxonomy that automatically enslaved the offspring of a slave and any other parent.

“Black people's enslavement produced an inclusive taxonomy that automatically enslaved the offspring of a slave and any other parent.”

Different racial regimes encode and reproduce the unequal relationships into which Europeans coerced the populations concerned.

“As I have argued, different racial regimes encode and reproduce the unequal relationships into which Europeans coerced the populations concerned.”

The restrictive racial classification of Indians furthered the logic of elimination.

“In this way, the restrictive racial classification of Indians straightforwardly furthered the logic of elimination.”

Indians and Black people in the US have been racialized in opposing ways that reflect their antithetical roles in the formation of US society.

“For instance, Indians and Black people in the US have been racialized in opposing ways that reflect their antithetical roles in the formation of US society.”

Agriculture supports a larger population than non-sedentary modes of production.

“as John Locke never tired of pointing out, agriculture supports a larger population than non-sedentary modes of production.”

• cites [39] 39. "For the provisions serving to the support of humane life, produced by one acre of inclosed and cultivated land, are (to speak much within compasse) ten times more, than those, which are yeilded [sic] by an acre of Land, of an equal richnesse, lyeing wast in common." John Locke, Two Treatises of Government (Cambridge: Cambridge U.P. 1963 [1698]), p 312.Not matched

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The positive force that animated the Jewish nation and its individual new-Jewish subjects issued from the negative process of excluding Palestine's Indigenous owners.

“The positive force that animated the Jewish nation and its individual new-Jewish subjects issued from the negative process of excluding Palestine's Indigenous owners.”

Some core features of modernity were pioneered in the colonies.

“as a range of thinkers-including, in this connection, W. E. B. Dubois, Hannah Arendt and Aime ´Ce ´saire-have argued, some of the core features of modernity were pioneered in the colonies.”

• cites [32] 32. Enzo Traverso, The Origins of Nazi Violence, Janet Lloyd, trans. (New York: New Press 2003);Not matched

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Race cannot be taken as given; it is made in the targeting.

“since a race cannot be taken as given.It is made in the targeting.”

There can be genocide in the absence of settler colonialism.

“Moreover, there can be genocide in the absence of settler colonialism.”

Race became discursively consolidated fairly late in the eighteenth century.

“which, as many have shown, became discursively consolidated fairly late in the eighteenth century.”

• cites [2] 2. Wolfe, Settler Colonialism and the Transformation of Anthropology, p 2; "Nation and miscegeNation," p 96.Not matched

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Indigenous North Americans were eliminated as Indians, not as the original owners of the land.

“Correspondingly, Indigenous North Americans were not killed, driven away, romanticized, assimilated, fenced in, bred White, and otherwise eliminated as the original owners of the land but as Indians.”

Settler colonialism's operations are not dependent on the presence or absence of formal state institutions or functionaries.

“Its operations are not dependent on the presence or absence of formal state institutions or functionaries.”

This agricultural expansion is a primitive accumulation that turns native flora and fauna into a dwindling resource.

“Through its ceaseless expansion, agriculture (including, for this purpose, commercial pastoralism) progressively eats into Indigenous territory, a primitive accumulation that turns native flora and fauna into a dwindling resource and curtails the reproduction of Indigenous modes of production.”

Settler colonialism destroys to replace.

“Settler colonialism destroys to replace.”

In its positive aspect, settler colonialism does not simply replace native society tout court; the process of replacement maintains the refractory imprint of the native counter-claim.

“In its positive aspect, therefore, settler colonialism does not simply replace native society tout court.Rather, the process of replacement maintains the refractory imprint of the native counter-claim.”

Justifications for European sovereigns' claim to territories of non-Christian (or uncivilized) inhabitants derived from the doctrine of discovery.

“justifications for this claim were derived from a disputatious arena of scholarly controversy that had been prompted by European conquests in the Americas and is misleadingly referred to, in the singular, as the doctrine of discovery.”

• cites [16] 16. See e.g. Wilcomb E. Washburn, ed., History of Indian-White Relations (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution 1988), William C. Sturtevant, ed., Handbook of North American Indians, Vol 4 (Washington D.C., Smithsonian Institution, 1978), pp 5-39.Not matched

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Negatively, settler colonialism strives for the dissolution of native societies.

“Negatively, it strives for the dissolution of native societies.”

The murderous activities of the frontier rabble constitute the colonial state's principal means of expansion.

“Rather than something separate from or running counter to the colonial state, the murderous activities of the frontier rabble constitute its principal means of expansion.”

Whether or not they practise agriculture, natives are typically represented as unsettled, nomadic, rootless in settler-colonial discourse.

“Whether or not they actually do practise agriculture, however (as in the case of SETTLER COLONIALISM the Indians who taught Whites to grow corn and tobacco), natives are typically represented as unsettled, nomadic, rootless, etc., in settler-colonial discourse.”

In its positive aspect, elimination is an organizing principle of settler-colonial society rather than a one-off (and superseded) occurrence.

“In its positive aspect, elimination is an organizing principal of settler-colonial society rather than a one-off (and superseded) occurrence.”

The doctrine of discovery distinguished dominion, which inhered in European sovereigns alone, from natives' right of occupancy, which entitled natives to pragmatic use (hunting and gathering rather than agriculture) of a territory Europeans had discovered.

“a constant theme is the clear distinction between dominion, which inhered in European sovereigns alone, and natives' right of occupancy, also expressed in terms of possession or usufruct, which entitled natives to pragmatic use (understood as hunting and gathering rather than agriculture) 19 of a territory that Europeans had discovered.”

• cites [19] 19. The classic accounts from a well-established literature include: Annie H. Abel, "The history of events resulting in Indian consolidation west of the Mississippi River," in American Historical Association Annual Report for 1906, 2 vols (Washington, DC: American Historical Association 1906), Vol 2, pp 233 - 450;Not matched

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The reproach of nomadism renders the native removable.

“The reproach of nomadism renders the native removable.”

Renaming is central to the cadastral effacement/replacement of the Palestinian Arab presence.

“Renaming is central to the cadastral effacement/replacement of the Palestinian Arab presence that Benvenisti poignantly recounts.”

• cites [10] 10. For varying analyses and discussions of the principal formulations of the doctrine of discovery, see e.g. Anthony Anghie, "Francisco de Vitoria and the colonial origins of international law," in Eve Darian-Smith and Peter Fitzpatrick, eds, Laws of the Postcolonial (Ann Arbor, MI: Michigan U.P. 1999), pp 89-107;Not matched

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On the symbolic level, settler society subsequently sought to recuperate indigeneity in order to express its difference and independence from the mother country.

“On the symbolic level, however, settler society subsequently sought to recuperate indigeneity in order to express its difference-and, accordingly, its independencefrom the mother country.”

The distinction between dominion and occupancy illuminates the settler-colonial project's reliance on the elimination of native societies.

“The distinction between dominion and occupancy illuminates the settler-colonial project's reliance on the elimination of native societies.”

The Industrial Revolution required colonial land and labour to produce its raw materials just as centrally as it required metropolitan factories and an industrial proletariat to process them.

“The Industrial Revolution, misleadingly figuring in popular consciousness as an autochthonous metropolitan phenomenon, required colonial land and labour to produce its raw materials just as centrally as it required metropolitan factories and an industrial proletariat to process them”

Modernity cannot by itself explain the insatiable dynamic whereby settler colonialism always needs more land.

“Of itself, however, modernity cannot explain the insatiable dynamic whereby settler colonialism always needs more land.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Settler colonialism always needs more land.

Positively, settler colonialism erects a new colonial society on the expropriated land base.

“Positively, it erects a new colonial society on the expropriated land base”

In North America, treaties between Indian and European nations were premised on a sovereignty that reflected Indians' capacity to permute local alliance networks among rival European presences.

“In North America, by contrast, treaties between Indian and European nations were premised on a sovereignty that reflected Indians' capacity to permute local alliance networks from among the rival Spanish, British, French, Dutch, Swedish and Russian presences.”

• cites [18] 18. Harvey D. Rosenthal, "Indian claims and the American conscience: a brief history of the Indian Claims Commission," in Imre Sutton, ed., Irredeemable America: The Indians' Estate and Land Claims (Albuquerque: New Mexico U.P. 1985), pp 35-70, at p 36.Not matched

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Territoriality is settler colonialism's specific, irreducible element.

“Territoriality is settler colonialism's specific, irreducible element.”

Through its ceaseless expansion, agriculture (including commercial pastoralism) progressively encroaches on Indigenous territory.

“Through its ceaseless expansion, agriculture (including, for this purpose, commercial pastoralism) progressively eats into Indigenous territory, a primitive accumulation that turns native flora and fauna into a dwindling resource and curtails the reproduction of Indigenous modes of production.”

The core doctrine of the conquest of labour emerged out of the local confrontation with Arab Palestinians in a form fundamentally different from the pristine doctrine of productivization that had originally been coined in Europe.

“the core doctrine of the conquest of labour, which produced the kibbutzim and Histadrut, central institutions of the Israeli state, emerged out of the local confrontation with Arab Palestinians in a form fundamentally different from the pristine doctrine of productivization that had originally been coined in Europe.”

• cites [13] 13. Robert A. Williams, Jr., The American Indian in Western Legal Thought: The Discourses of Conquest (Oxford: Oxford U.P. 1990), esp. pp 233-286.Not matched

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Settler society required the practical elimination of the natives in order to establish itself on their territory.

“On the one hand, settler society required the practical elimination of the natives in order to establish itself on their territory.”

If natives are not already nomadic, the reproach can be turned into a self-fulfilling prophecy through burning corn or uprooting fruit trees.

“Moreover, if the natives are not already nomadic, then the reproach can be turned into a self-fulfilling prophecy through the burning of corn or the uprooting of fruit trees.”

The right of occupancy was not an assertion of native rights but a pragmatic acknowledgment of the lethal interlude between the conceit of discovery and the practical realization of European settlement.

“In other words, the right of occupancy was not an assertion of native rights.Rather, it was a pragmatic acknowledgment of the lethal interlude that would intervene between the conceit of discovery, when navigators proclaimed European dominion over whole continents to trees or deserted beaches, and the practical realization of that conceit in the final securing of European settlement”

This agricultural expansion curtails the reproduction of Indigenous modes of production.

“Through its ceaseless expansion, agriculture (including, for this purpose, commercial pastoralism) progressively eats into Indigenous territory, a primitive accumulation that turns native flora and fauna into a dwindling resource and curtails the reproduction of Indigenous modes of production.”

Settler colonialism has both negative and positive dimensions, in common with genocide as Lemkin characterized it.

“In common with genocide as Raphae ¨l Lemkin characterized it, 6 settler colonialism has both negative and positive dimensions.”

• cites [6] 6. Tony Birch, "'Nothing has changed': the 'making and unmaking' of Koori Culture," in Miche `le Grossman, ed., Blacklines: Contemporary Critical Writing by Indigenous Australians (Melbourne: Melbourne U.P. 2003), pp 145-158.Not matched

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Preemption gave the discovering power a monopoly over land transactions with the natives, preventing natives from disposing of their land to any other European power.

“This right, known as preemption, gave the discovering power (or, in the US case, its successors) a monopoly over land transactions with the natives, who were prevented from disposing of their land to any other European power.”

In Australia, the erasure of indigeneity conflicts with the assertion of settler nationalism.

“In Australia, by contrast (as in many other settler societies), the erasure of indigeneity conflicts with the assertion of settler nationalism.”

The primary motive for elimination is not race (or religion, ethnicity, grade of civilization, etc.) but access to territory.

“the primary motive for elimination is not race (or religion, ethnicity, grade of civilization, etc.) but access to territory.”

The conquest of labour subordinated economic efficiency to the demands of building a self-sufficient proto-national Yishuv at the expense of the surrounding Arab population.

“As it developed on the colonial ground, the conquest of labour subordinated economic efficiency to the demands of building a self-sufficient proto-national Yishuv (Jewish community in Palestine) at the expense of the surrounding Arab population.”

• cites [14] 14. This observation unites almost all commentators, whatever their political inclination. Cf. e.g. Anthony Anghie, "Finding the peripheries: sovereignty and colonialism in nineteenth-century international law," Harvard International Law Journal, Vol 40, 1999, pp 1-80, at p 69;Not matched

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Even after slavery, Black people continued to have value as a source of super-cheap labour, which tempered their dispensability.

“Even after slavery, Black people continued to have value as a source of super-cheap labour (providing an incitement to poor Whites), so their dispensability was tempered.78”

• cites [78] 78. Zika, "Cannibalism and witchcraft in early-modern Europe: reading the visual images," History Workshop Journal, Vol 44, 1997, pp 77-105. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: As valuable commodities, slaves had only been destroyed in extremis.

The West Bank barrier is a concrete expression of spatial sequestration.

“There could hardly be a more concrete expression of spatial sequestration than the West Bank barrier.”

The Cherokee's farms, plantations, slaves and written constitution all signified permanence.

“the Cherokee's farms, plantations, slaves and written constitution all signified permanence.42”

• cites [42] 42. The capacity to achieve permanence was typically put down to European ancestry, as in Andrew Jackson's exasperated disparagement of the "designing half-breeds and renegade white men" who had encouraged Chickasaw reluctance to cede land. Theda Perdue, "Mixed Blood" Indians: Racial Construction in the Early South (Athens, GA: Georgia U.P. 2003), pp 70, 95-96. 43 Foreman, Indian Removal, p 310. 44Not matched

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With the demise of the frontier, elimination turned inwards, seeking to penetrate through the tribal surface to the individual Indian, who was to be co-opted out of the tribe and into White society.

“With the demise of the frontier, elimination turned inwards, seeking to penetrate through the tribal surface to the individual Indian below, who was to be co-opted out of the tribe, which would be depleted accordingly, and into White society.”

The logic of elimination is premised on the securing-the obtaining and the maintaining-of territory.

“No such problem bedevils analysis of the logic of elimination, which, in its specificity to settler colonialism, is premised on the securing-the obtaining and the maintaining-of territory.69”

• cites [69] 69. Gillian Cowlishaw, "Colour, culture and the Aboriginalists," Man, Vol 22, 1988, pp 221-237; sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Where there is no space left for removal, mass killings or assimilation become the only eliminatory options available.

“For instance, where there is no space left for removal (as occurred on the closure of the frontier in the US and Australia, or on the Soviet victory on Nazi Germany's eastern front), mass killings or assimilation become the only eliminatory options available.”

Genocide has been achieved by summary mass murder in the frontier massacring of Indigenous peoples, the Holocaust, and Rwanda.

“Thus genocide has been achieved by means of summary mass murder (to cite examples already used) in the frontier massacring of Indigenous peoples, in the Holocaust, and in Rwanda.”

Since settler colonialism persists over extended periods of time, structural genocide should be easier to interrupt than short-term genocides.

“Since settler colonialism persists over extended periods of time, structural genocide should be easier to interrupt than short-term genocides.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Settler colonialism persists over extended periods of time.

The barbarities of lynching and the Jim Crow reign of terror were a post-emancipation phenomenon.

“Thus it is highly significant that the barbarities of lynching and the Jim Crow reign of terror should be a post-emancipation phenomenon.77”

• cites [77] 77. Zika, "Fashioning new worlds from old fathers: reflections on Saturn, Amerindians and witches in a sixteenth- century print," in Donna Merwick, ed., Dangerous Liaisons: Essays in Honour of Greg Dening (Melbourne: History Department, University of Melbourne 1994), pp 249-281;Not matched

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Depending on the historical conjuncture, assimilation can be a more effective mode of elimination than conventional forms of killing, since it does not involve such a disruptive affront to the rule of law that is ideologically central to the cohesion of settler society.

“Indeed, depending on the historical conjuncture, assimilation can be a more effective mode of elimination than conventional forms of killing, since it does not involve such a disruptive affront to the rule of law that is ideologically central to the cohesion of settler society.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The rule of law is ideologically central to the cohesion of settler society.

Once colonized people outlive their utility, settler societies can fall back on strategies of spatial sequestration, as seen in US racial zoning and the penal system.

“Today in the US, the blatant racial zoning of large cities and the penal system suggests that, once colonized people outlive their utility, settler societies can fall back on the repertoire of strategies (in this case, spatial sequestration) whereby they have also dealt with the native surplus.”

The Cherokee Trail of Tears (winter 1838-1839) presupposed the Louisiana Purchase of 1803.

“The Cherokee Trail of Tears, which took place over the winter of 1838-1839, presupposed the Louisiana Purchase of 1803, when Thomas Jefferson had bought approximately one-third of the present-day continental United States at a knockdown price from Napoleon.52”

• cites [52] 52. What Jefferson bought was French dominion. The rawly unsettled nature of the Purchase territory (at least, outside New Orleans and its environs and outpost settlements such as Detroit and St Louis) was illustrated by the rapid commissioning of Lewis and Clark's 1803 expedition to chart it.Not matched

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The containment of Indian groups within Euroamerican society that culminated in the end of the frontier produced a range of ongoing complementary strategies whose common intention was the destruction of heterodox forms of Indian grouphood.

“In sum, the containment of Indian groups within Euroamerican society that culminated in the end of the frontier produced a range of ongoing complementary strategies whose common intention was the destruction of heterodox forms of Indian grouphood.”

What distinguished Ross and the removing Choctaw from those who stayed behind was collectivity.

“What distinguished Ross and the removing Choctaw from those who stayed behind was collectivity.46”

• cites [46] 46. So far, at least. If Al-Qaeda were to repeat the procedure a sufficient number of times, then 9/11 could emerge as the onset of a genocide. Definitionally, in other words, as in the case of other patterned or cumulative phenomena, genocide can obtain retrospectively.Not matched

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The logic of elimination is a larger category than genocide.

“To this extent, it is a larger category than genocide.”