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Smoking and mental illness: results from population surveys in Australia and the United States
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BACKGROUND: Smoking has been associated with a range of mental disorders including schizophrenia, anxiety disorders and depression. People with mental illness have high rates of morbidity and mortality from smoking related illnesses such as cardiovascular disease, respiratory diseases and cancer. As many people who meet diagnostic criteria for mental disorders do not seek treatment for these conditions, we sought to investigate the relationship between mental illness and smoking in recent population-wide surveys. METHODS: Survey data from the US National Comorbidity Survey-Replication conducted in 2001-2003, the 2007 Australian Survey of Mental Health and Wellbeing, and the 2007 US National Health Interview Survey were used to investigate the relationship between current smoking, ICD-10 mental disorders and non-specific psychological distress. Population weighted estimates of smoking rates by disorder, and mental disorder rates by smoking status were calculated. RESULTS: In both the US and Australia, adults who met ICD-10 criteria for mental disorders in the 12 months prior to the survey smoked at almost twice the rate of adults without mental disorders. While approximately 20% of the adult population had 12-month mental disorders, among adult smokers approximately one-third had a 12-month mental disorder--31.7% in the US (95% CI: 29.5%-33.8%) and 32.4% in Australia (95% CI: 29.5%-35.3%). Female smokers had higher rates of mental disorders than male smokers, and younger smokers had considerably higher rates than older smokers. The majority of mentally ill smokers were not in contact with mental health services, but their rate of smoking was not different from that of mentally ill smokers who had accessed services for their mental health problem. Smokers with high levels of psychological distress smoked a higher average number of cigarettes per day. CONCLUSION: Mental illness is associated with both higher rates of smoking and higher levels of smoking among smokers. Further, a significant proportion of smokers have mental illness. Strategies that address smoking in mental illness, and mental illness among smokers would seem to be important directions for tobacco control. As the majority of smokers with mental illness are not in contact with mental health services for their condition, strategies to address mental illness should be included as part of population health-based mental health and tobacco control efforts.
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![Figure 1 Proportion of Australian smokers with a mental disorder, by age group and sex. Source: 2007 Australian Survey of Mental Health and Wellbeing, customised tables [43].](/paper-figures/1531b4e7462f4d57a2d1ff6ea744cc1f/smoking-and-mental-illness-results-from-population-surveys-in-australia-and-the-figure-1.jpg)
![Figure 2 Proportion of United States smokers with a mental disorder, by age group and sex. Source: National Comorbidity Survey-replication [46].](/paper-figures/0e38b4b7bab24fcc9d04f703c41594ad/smoking-and-mental-illness-results-from-population-surveys-in-australia-and-the-figure-2.jpg)
![Figure 3 Proportion of US adult population who smoke, by level of psychological distress and sex. Source: 2007 United States National Health Interview Survey [49].](/paper-figures/e8f398166afa46888b8fcfdaab07e055/smoking-and-mental-illness-results-from-population-surveys-in-australia-and-the-figure-3.jpg)
![Figure 4 Proportion of US adult population who smoke, by level of psychological distress and age group. Source: 2007 United States National Health Interview Survey [49].](/paper-figures/269c042b1f114ea7a3c0816a32e2d1e6/smoking-and-mental-illness-results-from-population-surveys-in-australia-and-the-figure-4.jpg)
![Figure 5 Current US adult smokers: Average number of cigarettes smoked per day, by level of psychological distress. Source: 2007 United States National Health Interview Survey [49].](/paper-figures/34cb0d01bd6d41fca2a82f12abb03914/smoking-and-mental-illness-results-from-population-surveys-in-australia-and-the-figure-5.jpg)
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“Smoking is more prevalent among people with depression.”
From Depression and smoking cessation: evidence from a smoking cessation clinic with 1-year follow-up (2017) · cites this paper as [3]
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“A substantial proportion of all smokers have a history of depression”
From Depression and smoking cessation: evidence from a smoking cessation clinic with 1-year follow-up (2017) · cites this paper as [3]
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Metadata
- Authors
- Lawrence, D., Mitrou, F., & Zubrick, S. R.
- Affiliations
- The Kids Research Institute Australia (AU)
- Corresponding author
- Lawrence, David
- Venue
- BMC Public Health
- Published
- 2009-08-07
- Volume
- 9
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 285-285
- ISSN
- 1471-2458 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC2734850
- OpenAlex
- W1964578896
- Cited by
- 517
- References
- 77
- Citations by year
- 2026: 14 · 2025: 19 · 2024: 26 · 2023: 19 · 2022: 27 · 2021: 32 · 2020: 28 · 2019: 25 · 2018: 39 · 2017: 41 · 2016: 38 · 2015: 51 · 2014: 38 · 2013: 41 · 2012: 32
- FWCI
- 17.07
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- BMC Public Health (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- UWA Profiles and Research Repository (UWA) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- eSpace (Curtin University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- Robert Wood Johnson Foundation
- John W. Alden Trust
- Australian Government
- Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration
- National Institute of Mental Health
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Smoking Behavior and Cessation
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Mental Health Treatment and Access
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Substance Abuse Treatment and Outcomes
- Keywords
- smoking, mental illness, psychological distress, schizophrenia, anxiety disorders, depression, tobacco control, mental health service utilization, sex differences, age differences, cigarette consumption, Australia, United States
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Australia, Mental Disorders, Female, Humans, Male, Mental Health Services, Smoking, Stress, Psychological, United States, Young Adult
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