The Epidemiology of Excess Mortality in People with Mental Illness

Lawrence, David; Kisely, Stephen; Pais, Joanne

doi:10.1177/070674371005501202

Cited by 258Mental Health Treatment and AccessSuicide and Self-Harm StudiesSchizophrenia research and treatment

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The Epidemiology of Excess Mortality in People with Mental Illness

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Lawrence, David, Kisely, Stephen, Pais, Joanne·2010·The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry

DOI 10.1177/070674371005501202

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Abstract

OBJECTIVE: to investigate the burden of excess mortality among people with mental illness in developed countries, how it is distributed, and whether it has changed over time. METHOD: we conducted a systematic search of MEDLINE, restricting our attention to peer-reviewed studies and reviews published in English relating to mortality and mental illness. Because of the large number of studies that have been undertaken during the last 30 years, we have selected a representative cross-section of studies for inclusion in our review. RESULTS: there is substantial excess mortality in people with mental illness for almost all psychiatric disorders and all main causes of death. Consistently elevated rates have been observed across settings and over time. The highest numbers of excess deaths are due to cardiovascular and respiratory diseases. With life expectancy increasing in the general population, the disparity in mortality outcomes for people with mental illness is increasing. CONCLUSIONS: without the development of alternative approaches to promoting and treating the physical health of people with mental illness, it is possible that the disparity in mortality outcomes will persist.

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Lawrence et al. 2010 concluded insufficient health service for schizophrenic patients with cardiovascular disease may explain part of increased mortality from natural causes.
“Lawrence et al. (2010) concluded that insufficient health service for schizophrenic patients with cardiovascular disease may explain part of the increased mortality from natural causes.”
From Excess early mortality in schizophrenia. (2014) · cites this paper as Lawrence et al. 2010
Cardiovascular disease accounts for much of the excess mortality in psychiatric patients.
“CVD accounts for much of the excess mortality in psychiatric patients.442”
From 2016 ESC/EAS Guidelines for the Management of Dyslipidaemias (2016) · cites this paper as [442]

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2016 ESC/EAS Guidelines for the Management of Dyslipidaemias
Catapano, A. L., Graham, I., De Backer, G., Wiklund, O., Chapman, M. J., Drexel, H., Hoes, A. W., Jennings, C. S., Landmesser, U., Pedersen, T. R., et al. (2016) · European Heart Journal · doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehw272 · Cited by 3,162
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2016 ESC/EAS Guidelines for the Management of Dyslipidaemias
Catapano, A. L., Graham, I., De Backer, G., Wiklund, O., Chapman, M. J., Drexel, H., Hoes, A. W., Jennings, C. S., Landmesser, U., Pedersen, T. R., et al. (2016) · Atherosclerosis · doi:10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2016.08.018 · Cited by 1,582
“CVD accounts for much of the excess mortality in psychiatric patients.(442) CVD develops more than a decade earlier in patients with bipolar disorders than in controls.”
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Years of potential life lost and life expectancy in schizophrenia: a systematic review and meta-analysis
Hjorthøj, C., Stürup, A. E., McGrath, J. J., & Nordentoft, M. (2017) · The Lancet Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s2215-0366(17)30078-0 · Cited by 1,304
Excess early mortality in schizophrenia.
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The American Psychiatric Association Practice Guideline for the Treatment of Patients With Schizophrenia
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“Today, they are still more prevalent in these individuals compared to the general population, and among the most common causes of death (146-149).”
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The gap in life expectancy from preventable physical illness in psychiatric patients in Western Australia: retrospective analysis of population based registers
Lawrence, D., Hancock, K. J., & Kisely, S. (2013) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.f2539 · Cited by 819
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Excess mortality, causes of death and life expectancy in 270,770 patients with recent onset of mental disorders in Denmark, Finland and Sweden
Nordentoft, M., Wahlbeck, K., Hällgren, J., Westman, J., Ösby, U., Alinaghizadeh, H., Gissler, M., & Laursen, T. M. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0055176 · Cited by 778
ESC/EAS Guidelines for the management of dyslipidaemias
Catapano, A. L., Reiner, Ž., De Backer, G., Graham, I., Taskinen, M.-R., Wiklund, O., Agewall, S., Alegria, E., Chapman, M. J., Durrington, P., et al. (2011) · Atherosclerosis · doi:10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2011.06.028 · Cited by 706
The Lancet Psychiatry Commission on psychological treatments research in tomorrow's science
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Evidence-based guidelines for the pharmacological treatment of schizophrenia: Updated recommendations from the British Association for Psychopharmacology
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Association of Mental Disorders With Subsequent Chronic Physical Conditions
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Life expectancy and cardiovascular mortality in persons with schizophrenia
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DRUG AND ALCOHOL DEPENDENCE
Vastrad, D., Chaudhary, G., & Ronad, S. V. (1962) · The Medical Journal of Australia · doi:10.5694/j.1326-5377.1976.tb140860.x · Cited by 393
Life expectancy and death by diseases of the circulatory system in patients with bipolar disorder or schizophrenia in the Nordic countries.
Laursen, T. M., Wahlbeck, K., Hällgren, J., Westman, J., Ösby, U., Alinaghizadeh, H., Gissler, M., & Nordentoft, M. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0067133 · Cited by 313
“A large number of reviews and commentaries have recently been made on the excess mortality from cardiovascular disorders in patients with schizophrenia and bipolar disorder [31–41].”
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Differential mortality rates in major and subthreshold depression: meta-analysis of studies that measured both
Cuijpers, P. J., Vogelzangs, N., Twisk, J. W. R., Kleiboer, A. M., Li, J., & Penninx, B. W. J. H. (2013) · The British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.112.112169 · Cited by 305
The oral health of people with anxiety and depressive disorders – a systematic review and meta-analysis
Kisely, S. R., Sawyer, E., Siskind, D. J., & Lalloo, R. (2016) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2016.04.040 · Cited by 311
“People with psychiatric disorder face important physical comorbidities including diabetes, cardiovascular disease, chronic lung disease and cancer (Lawrence et al., 2013, 2010).”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Alarming changes in the global burden of mental disorders in children and adolescents from 1990 to 2019: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease study
Piao, J., Huang, Y., Han, C., Li, Y., Xu, Y., Liu, Y., & He, X. (2022) · European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s00787-022-02040-4 · Cited by 289
Should psychiatrists be more cautious about the long-term prophylactic use of antipsychotics?
Murray, R. M., Quattrone, D., Natesan, S., van Os, J., Nordentoft, M., Howes, O., Di Forti, M., & Taylor, D. (2016) · British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.116.182683 · Cited by 244
Quality of medical care and excess mortality in psychiatric patients—a nationwide register-based study in Sweden
Björkenstam, E., Ljung, R., Burström, B., Mittendorfer-Rutz, E., Hallqvist, J., & Weitoft, G. R. (2012) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2011-000778 · Cited by 190
Social disparities in the prevalence of multimorbidity – A register-based population study
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“Multimorbidity that includes mental health conditions has been associated with greater symptom burden and functional impairment, poorer quality of life, higher costs and excess mortality [15, 16].”
Temporal and spatial trend analysis of all-cause depression burden based on Global Burden of Disease (GBD) 2019 study
Liu, J., Liu, Y., Ma, W., Tong, Y., & Zheng, J. (2024) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-024-62381-9 · Cited by 160
Diagnostic overshadowing: An evolutionary concept analysis on the misattribution of physical symptoms to pre‐existing psychological illnesses
Hallyburton, A. (2022) · International Journal of Mental Health Nursing · doi:10.1111/inm.13034 · Cited by 159
“Such disparities extend across psychiatric diagnoses and are not limited to specific categories or levels of illness (Lawrence et al. 2010).”
Background
Risk factors for incident nonmedical prescription opioid use and abuse and dependence: Results from a longitudinal nationally representative sample
Katz, C., El-Gabalawy, R. M., Keyes, K. M., Martins, S. S., & Sareen, J. (2013) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2013.01.010 · Cited by 122
“…effects among the aforementioned variables to look at the dose-response relationship of Axis I and II mental disorders and physical conditions, as the clinical picture indicates that patients with comorbid disorders may be at increased risk of poor outcomes and mortality (Lawrence et al., 2010).”
BackgroundMethod
Health Self-Efficacy Among Populations with Multiple Chronic Conditions: the Value of Patient-Centered Communication
Rutten, L. J. F., Hesse, B. W., Sauver, J. L. S., Wilson, P. M., Chawla, N., Blanch‐Hartigan, D., Moser, R. P., Taplin, S. H., Glasgow, R. E., & Arora, N. K. (2016) · Advances in Therapy · doi:10.1007/s12325-016-0369-7 · Cited by 122
“Co-occurrence of mental and physical illness has been associated with greater functional impairment, higher symptom burden, poorer quality of life, and poorer health outcomes [15, 16].”
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Dying Too Soon: Excess Mortality in Severe Mental Illness
de Mooij, L. D., Kikkert, M., Theunissen, J., Beekman, A. T. F., de Haan, L., Duurkoop, P. W. R. A., Van, H. L., & Dekker, J. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00855 · Cited by 132
“There is also evidence that this mortality gap has been increasing over time (4, 19, 6).”
Background
Why do psychiatric patients have higher cancer mortality rates when cancer incidence is the same or lower?
Kisely, S. R., Forsyth, S. J., & Lawrence, D. (2015) · Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/0004867415577979 · Cited by 96
“population has increased over time (Lawrence et al., 2003; Lawrence et al., 2010).”
Self-citation
The American Psychiatric Association Practice Guideline for the Treatment of Patients With Schizophrenia
Keepers, G. A., Fochtmann, L. J., Anzia, J. M., Benjamin, S., Lyness, J. M., Mojtabai, R., Servis, M. E., Walaszek, A., Buckley, P. F., Lenzenweger, M. F., et al. (2020) · FOCUS The Journal of Lifelong Learning in Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.focus.18402 · Cited by 89
“…maintenance (e.g. diet, exercise), and disparities in access to preventive health care and treatment for physical conditions (Bergamo et al. 2014; De Hert et al. 2011; Druss et al. 2000; Janssen et al. 2015; Kisely et al. 2007, 2013; Kugathasan et al. 2018; Lawrence et al. 2010; Moore et al. 2015).”
Background
Prevalence of Combined Somatic and Mental Health Multimorbidity: Patterns by Age, Sex, and Race/Ethnicity
Bobo, W. V., Yawn, B. P., Sauver, J. L. S., Grossardt, B. R., Boyd, C. M., & Rocca, W. A. (2016) · The Journals of Gerontology Series A · doi:10.1093/gerona/glw032 · Cited by 72
“SMM has been associated with greater symptom burden and functional impairment, poorer quality of life, higher costs, and excess mortality (5,6).”
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Promoting physical health in severe mental illness: patient and staff perspective
Kristiansen, C. B., Juel, A., Hansen, M. V., Hansen, A., Kilian, R., & Hjorth, P. (2015) · Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica · doi:10.1111/acps.12520 · Cited by 67
“The health care received by these patients tends to be less efficient than the health care received by the general population with similar physical health problems (3, 5).”
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Excess Mortality of Alcohol‐Dependent Individuals After 14 Years and Mortality Predictors Based on Treatment Participation and Severity of Alcohol Dependence
John, U., Rumpf, H., Bischof, G., Hapke, U., Hanke, M., & Meyer, C. (2012) · Alcoholism Clinical and Experimental Research · doi:10.1111/j.1530-0277.2012.01863.x · Cited by 66
Cause and Rate of Death in People With Schizophrenia Across the Lifespan
Kredentser, M. S., Martens, P. J., Chochinov, H. M., & Prior, H. J. (2014) · The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry · doi:10.4088/jcp.13m08711 · Cited by 64
The association between perceived social and physical environment and mental health among older adults: mediating effects of loneliness
Domènech‐Abella, J., Switsers, L., Mundó, J., Dierckx, E., Dury, S., & Donder, L. D. (2020) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607863.2020.1727853 · Cited by 64
A Surveillance System to Monitor Excess Mortality of People with Mental Illness in Canada
LESAGE, A. D., Rochette, L., Émond, V., Pelletier, É., St-Laurent, D., Diallo, F. B., & Kisely, S. R. (2015) · The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/070674371506001208 · Cited by 62
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Polygenic overlap and shared genetic loci between loneliness, severe mental disorders, and cardiovascular disease risk factors suggest shared molecular mechanisms
Rødevand, L. N., Bahrami, S., Frei, O., Lin, A., Gani, O., Shadrin, A. A., Smeland, O. B., Connell, K. S. O., Elvsåshagen, T., Winterton, A., et al. (2021) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41398-020-01142-4 · Cited by 69
Post-mortem toxicology in young sudden cardiac death victims: a nationwide cohort study
Bjune, T., Risgaard, B., Kruckow, L., Glinge, C., Hansen, O. I., Leth, P. M., Línnet, K., Banner, J., Winkel, B. G., & Tfelt‐Hansen, J. (2017) · EP Europace · doi:10.1093/europace/euw435 · Cited by 61
Sickness Absence Due to Specific Mental Diagnoses and All-Cause and Cause-Specific Mortality: A Cohort Study of 4.9 Million Inhabitants of Sweden
Mittendorfer‐Rutz, E., Kjeldgård, L., Runeson, B., Perski, A., Melchior, M., Head, J. A., & Alexanderson, K. A. E. (2012) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0045788 · Cited by 61
“The literature, based on studies from different treatment settings, is somewhat inconsistent with regard to possible gender differences in the association of mental diagnoses, particularly affective disorders, and mortality due to circulatory disease [14,16,17,32].”
BackgroundInfluential
Suicide prevention in psychiatric patients
Wasserman, D., Carli, V., Iosue, M., Javed, A., & Herrman, H. (2021) · Asia-Pacific Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/appy.12450 · Cited by 71
Mood Disorders, Accelerated Aging, and Inflammation: Is the Link Hidden in Telomeres?
Squassina, A., Pisanu, C., & Vanni, R. (2019) · Cells · doi:10.3390/cells8010052 · Cited by 58
“Most of these deaths are accounted for by chronic physical medical conditions that are usually associated with aging, such as cardiovascular, respiratory, and infectious diseases, diabetes, and hypertension [3,4].”
Background
Effects of high intensity interval training among overweight individuals with psychotic disorders: A randomized controlled trial
Romain, A. J., Fankam, C., Karelis, A. D., Letendre, E., Mikolajczak, G., Stip, É., & Abdel‐Baki, A. (2018) · Schizophrenia Research · doi:10.1016/j.schres.2018.12.021 · Cited by 52
Pickleball and mental health in adults: A systematic review
Cerezuela, J.-L., Manzano, M. J. L., & Cangas, A. J. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1137047 · Cited by 73
Telomere attrition and inflammatory load in severe psychiatric disorders and in response to psychotropic medications
Squassina, A., Manchia, M., Pisanu, C., Ardau, R., Arzedi, C., Bocchetta, A., Caria, P., Cocco, C., Congiu, D., Cossu, E., et al. (2020) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/s41386-020-00844-z · Cited by 50
Psychological Distress During the Retirement Transition and the Role of Psychosocial Working Conditions and Social Living Environment
Lahdenperä, M., Virtanen, M., Myllyntausta, S., Pentti, J., Vahtera, J., & Stenholm, S. (2021) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/gbab054 · Cited by 44
“Mental disorders are one of the leading causes of ill-health and disability, increasing the risk of chronic physical conditions and mortality (Lawrence et al., 2010; Scott et al., 2016).”
Background
Care Provision to Prevent Chronic Disease by Community Mental Health Clinicians
Bartlem, K. M., Bowman, J. A., Freund, M., Wye, P. M., McElwaine, K. M., Wolfenden, L., Campbell, E. M., Gillham, K. E., & Wiggers, J. H. (2014) · American Journal of Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2014.08.003 · Cited by 43
Depressive symptoms and short telomere length are associated with increased mortality in bladder cancer patients
Lin, J., Blalock, J. A., Chen, M., Ye, Y., Gu, J., Cohen, L., Cinciripini, P. M., & Wu, X. (2015) · Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention · doi:10.1158/1055-9965.epi-14-0992 · Cited by 42
2016 ESC/EAS Guidelines for the Management of Dyslipidaemias
Catapano, A. L., Graham, I. M., Backer, G. D., Wiklund, O., Chapman, M. J., Drexel, H., Hoes, A. W., Jennings, C. S., Landmesser, U., Pedersen, T. R., et al. (2016) · Kardiologia Polska · doi:10.5603/kp.2016.0157 · Cited by 46
Towards a palliative care approach in psychiatry: do we need a new definition?
Lindblad, A., Helgesson, G., & Sjöstrand, M. (2018) · Journal of Medical Ethics · doi:10.1136/medethics-2018-104944 · Cited by 40
Acceptability and Receipt of Preventive Care for Chronic-Disease Health Risk Behaviors Reported by Clients of Community Mental Health Services
Bartlem, K. M., Bowman, J., Freund, M., Wye, P. M., Lecathelinais, C., McElwaine, K., Wolfenden, L., Gillham, K. E., & Wiggers, J. H. (2015) · Psychiatric Services · doi:10.1176/appi.ps.201400360 · Cited by 39
Impact of mental health problems on case fatality in male cancer patients
Batty, G. D., Whitley, E., Galé, C. R., Osborn, D., Tynelius, P., & Rasmussen, F. E. (2012) · British Journal of Cancer · doi:10.1038/bjc.2012.150 · Cited by 39
“It is therefore perhaps unsurprising that individuals with mental health problems appear to have shorter life expectancy than their healthy counterparts (Harris and Barraclough, 1998; Eaton et al, 2008; Lawrence et al, 2010).”
Background
Early Mortality and Primary Causes of Death in Mothers of Children with Intellectual Disability or Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Retrospective Cohort Study
Fairthorne, J., Hammond, G., Bourke, J., Jacoby, P. A., & Leonard, H. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0113430 · Cited by 38
“[10] The category, Misadventure includes all causes of death in our data-set related to homicide, suicide or accident.”
Background
From personal crisis care to convenience shopping: an interpretive description of the experiences of people with mental illness and addictions in community pharmacies
Murphy, A. L., Martin‐Misener, R., Kutcher, S., O’Reilly, C. L., Chen, T. F., & Gardner, D. M. (2016) · BMC Health Services Research · doi:10.1186/s12913-016-1817-4 · Cited by 38
Mental Illness and Use of Screening Mammography Among Medicaid Beneficiaries
Koroukian, S. M., Bakaki, P. M., Golchin, N., Tyler, C. V., & Loue, S. (2012) · American Journal of Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2012.03.002 · Cited by 35
“The main independent variable, mental illness, was identifıed ased on the following indicators: (1) presence of ICD-9-CMdiagosis codes for mental illness and/or alcohol/substance abuse; 2) receipt of mental health services; and (3) prescriptions pertainng to psychiatric conditions.”
Method
What are the top 10 physical activity research questions in schizophrenia?
Vancampfort, D., Rosenbaum, S., Probst, M., Connaughton, J., du Plessis, C., Yamamoto, T., & Stubbs, B. (2016) · Disability and Rehabilitation · doi:10.3109/09638288.2015.1116622 · Cited by 35
“suicide.[5] For example, the most prevalent physical”
Increased Framingham 10-year CVD risk in Chinese patients with schizophrenia
Tay, Y. H., Nurjono, M., & Lee, J. (2013) · Schizophrenia Research · doi:10.1016/j.schres.2013.03.023 · Cited by 35
“Although suicide is a significant factor (Hor and Taylor, 2010), studies have shown that cardiovascular disease (CVD) is a major contributor to this excess premature mortality (Lawrence et al., 2010).”
Background
The development of a questionnaire to investigate the views of health professionals regarding exercise for the treatment of mental illness
Stanton, R., Happell, B., & Reaburn, P. R. J. (2014) · Mental health and physical activity · doi:10.1016/j.mhpa.2014.06.001 · Cited by 37
Breast cancer treatment disparities in patients with severe mental illness: A systematic review and meta‐analysis
Kisely, S., Alotiby, M. K. N., Protani, M. M., Soole, R., Arnautovska, U., & Siskind, D. (2023) · Psycho-Oncology · doi:10.1002/pon.6120 · Cited by 31
“ity for people with mental illness, demonstrating that social deprivation and disadvantage are not the sole determinants.(8,14)”
BackgroundSelf-citation
The impact of smoking cessation on schizophrenia and major depression
Ragg, M., Gordon, R., Ahmed, T., & Allan, J. (2013) · Australasian Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/1039856213486213 · Cited by 31
Management of Schizophrenia in Late Life with Antipsychotic Medications
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Evaluation of physical fitness parameters in patients with schizophrenia
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“These might be manifest in terms of higher smoking rates, substance abuse and increased alcohol consumption compared to other women (Lawrence et al. 2010).”
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Excess mortality in people with mental illness: findings from a Northern Italy psychiatric case register
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“Like many psychological disorders, depression affects individuals’ physical health and well-being and has been associated to many chronic diseases such as cancer, cardiovascular disease (CVD), diabetes and respiratory disease (Clarke and Currie, 2009; Lawrence et al., 2013, 2010).”
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“Depressive disorders have been ranked as the leading cause of disability worldwide (World Health Organization 2017) and are associated with elevated rates of mortality from various natural and unnatural causes (Lawrence et al. 2010).”
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Physical activity and sedentary behaviour of adults with mental illness
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Authors: Lawrence, D., Kisely, S., & Pais, J.
Affiliations: The Kids Research Institute Australia (AU)
Professor and Director, The University of Queensland, Health LinQ: The Queensland Centre for Health Data Services, Brisbane, Australia; Professor, Department of Psychiatry, Community Health and Epidemiology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia
The University of Queensland (AU)
Corresponding author: Lawrence, David
Venue: The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry
Publisher: SAGE Publications
Published: 2010-12
Volume: 55
Issue: 12
Pages: 752-760
ISSN: 0706-7437 (ISSN-L)
1497-0015
DOI: 10.1177/070674371005501202
OpenAlex: W149077341
Cited by: 258
References: 103
Citations by year: 2026: 6 · 2025: 11 · 2024: 14 · 2023: 19 · 2022: 16 · 2021: 18 · 2020: 25 · 2019: 16 · 2018: 15 · 2017: 12 · 2016: 19 · 2015: 18 · 2014: 22 · 2013: 24 · 2012: 15
FWCI: 1.84
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: bronze
doi.org
Licence: journals.sagepub.com/page/policies/text-and-data-mining-license (tdm)
Locations: The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
UWA Profiles and Research Repository (UWA) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
eSpace (Curtin University) (submittedVersion)
Griffith Research Online (submittedVersion)
Topics: Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Mental Health Treatment and Access
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Suicide and Self-Harm Studies
Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Schizophrenia research and treatment
Keywords: excess mortality, mental illness, cardiovascular disease, respiratory diseases, life expectancy, mortality disparities, physical health of people with mental illness, causes of death
MeSH terms: Mental Disorders, Cardiovascular Diseases, Cause of Death, Humans, Respiratory Tract Diseases, Risk Factors, Schizophrenia, Mood Disorders

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The Epidemiology of Excess Mortality in People with Mental Illness

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