Cited by 158Malaria Research and ControlInsect Resistance and GeneticsDengue and Mosquito Control Research

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Spatial and temporal variation in the kdr allele L1014S in Anopheles gambiae s.s. and phenotypic variability in susceptibility to insecticides in Western Kenya

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Mathias, Derrick K, Ochomo, Eric, Atieli, Francis, Ombok, Maurice, Nabie Bayoh, M, Olang, George, Muhia, Damaris, Kamau, Luna, Vulule, John M, Hamel, Mary J, Hawley, William A, Walker, Edward D, Gimnig, John E·2011·Malaria Journal

DOI 10.1186/1475-2875-10-10PMC PMC3029224

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Abstract

Background: Malaria vector control in Africa depends upon effective insecticides in bed nets and indoor residual sprays. This study investigated the extent of insecticide resistance in Anopheles gambiae s.l., Anopheles gambiae s.s. and Anopheles arabiensis in western Kenya where ownership of insecticide-treated bed nets has risen steadily from the late 1990s to 2010. Temporal and spatial variation in the frequency of a knock down resistance (kdr) allele in A. gambiae s.s. was quantified, as was variation in phenotypic resistance among geographic populations of A. gambiae s.l. Methods: To investigate temporal variation in kdr frequency, individual specimens of A. gambiae s.s. from two sentinel sites were genotyped using RT-PCR from 1996-2010. Spatial variation in kdr frequency, species composition, and resistance status were investigated in additional populations of A. gambiae s.l. sampled in western Kenya in 2009 and 2010. Specimens were genotyped for kdr as above and identified to species via conventional PCR. Field-collected larvae were reared to adulthood and tested for insecticide resistance using WHO bioassays. Results: Anopheles gambiae s.s. showed a dramatic increase in kdr frequency from 1996 - 2010, coincident with the scale up of insecticide-treated nets. By 2009-2010, the kdr L1014S allele was nearly fixed in the A. gambiae s.s. population, but was absent in A. arabiensis. Near Lake Victoria, A. arabiensis was dominant in samples, while at sites north of the lake A. gambiae s.s was more common but declined relative to A. arabiensis from 2009 to 2010. Bioassays demonstrated that A. gambiae s.s. had moderate phenotypic levels of resistance to DDT, permethrin and deltamethrin while A. arabiensis was susceptible to all insecticides tested. Conclusions: The kdr L1014S allele has approached fixation in A. gambiae s.s. populations of western Kenya, and these same populations exhibit varying degrees of phenotypic resistance to DDT and pyrethroid insecticides. The near absence of A. gambiae s.s. from populations along the lakeshore and the apparent decline in other populations suggest that insecticide-treated nets remain effective against this mosquito despite the increase in kdr allele frequency. The persistence of A. arabiensis, despite little or no detectable insecticide resistance, is likely due to behavioural traits such as outdoor feeding and/or feeding on non-human hosts by which this species avoids interaction with insecticide-treated nets.

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Figure 1 Map of study area. A. Map of Kenya showing where studies were conducted in western Kenya, indicated by the box. B. Map showing sampling locations in western Kenya study area, near Kisumu, Kenya's third largest city.CC BY · PubMed Central

Figure 2 Frequency of the kdr L1014S allele in Anopheles gambiae s.s. (top) and bed net ownership (bottom) by year in Asembo and Seme, western Kenya. Bed net ownership is the percentage of households that own at least one bed net, including both treated conventional nets and long-lasting impregnated nets.CC BY · PubMed Central

Figure 3 Proportion of A. gambiae s.s. and A. arabiensis at sites in western Kenya in 2009 (A) and 2010 (B); Proportion of kdr genotypes observed in A. gambiae s.s. at sites in western Kenya in 2009 (C) and 2010 (D).CC BY · PubMed Central

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Authors: Mathias, D. K., Ochomo, E., Atieli, F., Ombok, M., Nabie Bayoh, M., Olang, G., Muhia, D., Kamau, L., Vulule, J. M., Hamel, M. J., Hawley, W. A., Walker, E. D., & Gimnig, J. E.
Affiliations: Kenya Medical Research Institute (KE)
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (US)
Michigan State University (US)
Corresponding author: Walker, Edward D
Gimnig, John E
ORCID: Mathias, Derrick K
Ochomo, Eric
Kamau, Luna
Vulule, John M
Walker, Edward D
Gimnig, John E
Venue: Malaria Journal
Publisher: Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published: 2011-01-14
Volume: 10
Issue: 1
Pages: 10-10
ISSN: 1475-2875 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1186/1475-2875-10-10
PMC: PMC3029224
OpenAlex: W2106675599
Cited by: 158
References: 56
Citations by year: 2026: 5 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 7 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 3 · 2021: 20 · 2020: 13 · 2019: 9 · 2018: 14 · 2017: 8 · 2016: 12 · 2015: 11 · 2014: 13 · 2013: 15 · 2012: 14
FWCI: 14.78
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: gold
doi.org
Licence: cc-by
Locations: Malaria Journal (publishedVersion, cc-by)
PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Kenyatta University Institutional Repository (Kenyatta University) (submittedVersion)
Funders: National Science Foundation (EF-072377)
Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
Topics: Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Malaria Research and Control
Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Insect Resistance and Genetics
Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Dengue and Mosquito Control Research
Keywords: Anopheles arabiensis, knockdown resistance, insecticide resistance, pyrethroid resistance, DDT resistance, permethrin, deltamethrin, insecticide-treated nets, malaria vector control, species composition, spatiotemporal variation, Western Kenya
MeSH terms: Animals, Anopheles, Cattle, Child, Preschool, Drug Resistance, Female, Gene Frequency, Geography, Humans, Infant, Infant, Newborn, Insecticides, Kenya, Pregnancy, Time Factors, Insect Proteins, Amino Acid Substitution, Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction

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Spatial and temporal variation in the kdr allele L1014S in Anopheles gambiae s.s. and phenotypic variability in susceptibility to insecticides in Western Kenya

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