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The biodiversity hypothesis and allergic disease: world allergy organization position statement
Open accessAbstract
Biodiversity loss and climate change secondary to human activities are now being associated with various adverse health effects. However, less attention is being paid to the effects of biodiversity loss on environmental and commensal (indigenous) microbiotas. Metagenomic and other studies of healthy and diseased individuals reveal that reduced biodiversity and alterations in the composition of the gut and skin microbiota are associated with various inflammatory conditions, including asthma, allergic and inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD), type1 diabetes, and obesity. Altered indigenous microbiota and the general microbial deprivation characterizing the lifestyle of urban people in affluent countries appear to be risk factors for immune dysregulation and impaired tolerance. The risk is further enhanced by physical inactivity and a western diet poor in fresh fruit and vegetables, which may act in synergy with dysbiosis of the gut flora. Studies of immigrants moving from non-affluent to affluent regions indicate that tolerance mechanisms can rapidly become impaired in microbe-poor environments. The data on microbial deprivation and immune dysfunction as they relate to biodiversity loss are evaluated in this Statement of World Allergy Organization (WAO). We propose that biodiversity, the variability among living organisms from all sources are closely related, at both the macro- and micro-levels. Loss of the macrodiversity is associated with shrinking of the microdiversity, which is associated with alterations of the indigenous microbiota. Data on behavioural means to induce tolerance are outlined and a proposal made for a Global Allergy Plan to prevent and reduce the global allergy burden for affected individuals and the societies in which they live.
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![Figure 1 Two global megatrends in biodiversity and public health. (a) Declining biodiversity (percentage change) since 1970 as measured by two indices. WPSI=Waterbird Population Status Index; LPI=Living Planet Index [14]. (b) Increasing trends in the prevalence of inflammatory civilization diseases, asthma and allergic rhinitis among military conscripts in 1966-2003 [165] as an example (modified from ref. [14]).](/paper-figures/efdc9d3a359f4291b672a407ffa3d7a9/the-biodiversity-hypothesis-and-allergic-disease-world-allergy-organization-figure-1.jpg)
![Figure 2 Trends in a) prevalence of asthma and allergic rhinitis [165], b) incidence of pediatric inflammatory bowel disease [59], c) incidence of colon and rectum cancer [168], and d) prevalence of coeliac disease and type 1 diabetes [166], e) incidence of Wegener’s granulomatosis [167], and f) incidence of non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma in Finland in 1950-2009 [168].](/paper-figures/2b9e9b7c54214fdf9ab2a41ab19193fd/the-biodiversity-hypothesis-and-allergic-disease-world-allergy-organization-figure-2.jpg)
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“Similarly, the biodiversity hypothesis highlights the role of natural environments in shaping the human microbiome [38], enhancing immune balance, and reducing inflammation-related diseases [38,39,40].”
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Helsinki by nature: The Nature Step to Respiratory Health
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Self-citationExposure to airborne bacteria depends upon vertical stratification and vegetation complexity
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Transfer of dysbiotic gut microbiota has beneficial effects on host liver metabolism
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Lifestyle Changes and Industrialization in the Development of Allergic Diseases
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Respiratory eukaryotic virome expansion and bacteriophage deficiency characterize childhood asthma
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Integrative concepts and practices of health in transdisciplinary social ecology
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Self-citation
Metadata
- Authors
- Haahtela, T., Holgate, S., Pawankar, R., Akdis, C. A., Benjaponpitak, S., Caraballo, L., Demain, J., Portnoy, J., & von Hertzen, L.
- Affiliations
- Helsinki University Hospital (FI)
- University of Southampton (GB)
- Nippon Medical School (JP)
- Mahidol University (TH)
- Universidad de Cartagena (CO)
- University of Washington (US)
- University of Missouri–Kansas City (US)
- Corresponding author
- Haahtela, Tari
- ORCID
- Venue
- World Allergy Organization Journal
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2013
- Volume
- 6
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 3
- ISSN
- 1939-4551 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC3646540
- OpenAlex
- W2105617257
- Cited by
- 426
- References
- 168
- Citations by year
- 2026: 30 · 2025: 24 · 2024: 39 · 2023: 37 · 2022: 36 · 2021: 40 · 2020: 38 · 2019: 33 · 2018: 30 · 2017: 29 · 2016: 27 · 2015: 31 · 2014: 23 · 2013: 7
- FWCI
- 13.15
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- World Allergy Organization Journal (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Zurich Open Repository and Archive (University of Zurich) (acceptedVersion, cc-by)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Työväentutkimus Vuosikirja (submittedVersion)
- Zurich Open Repository and Archive (University of Zurich) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Zurich Open Repository and Archive (University of Zurich)
- Funders
- National Institute for Health and Care Research (NF-SI-0510-10021)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Gut microbiota and health
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Pulmonary and Respiratory Medicine › Asthma and respiratory diseases
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Immunology and Allergy › Allergic Rhinitis and Sensitization
- Keywords
- biodiversity loss, allergic diseases, gut microbiota, skin microbiome, dysbiosis, immune tolerance, immune dysregulation, asthma, inflammatory bowel disease, type 1 diabetes, obesity, climate change, urban lifestyle, immigrant health, allergy prevention
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