The DOI matches its Crossref record; 37 of the 38 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 2 of the 39 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Menstrual hygiene management in rural schools of Zambia: a descriptive study of knowledge, experiences and challenges faced by schoolgirls
Open accessAbstract
INTRODUCTION: While in school, girls require an environment that is supportive of menstrual hygiene management (MHM) in order to ensure regular school attendance and participation. Little is known about schoolgirls access to and practice of MHM in rural Zambia. This study explores girls' experiences of MHM in rural schools of Zambia from the perspectives of schoolgirls, schoolboys and community and school-based adults key to MHM for schoolgirls. METHODS: In July and August 2015, we conducted this qualitative exploratory study in six rural schools of Mumbwa and Rufunsa districts of Zambia. Twelve in-depth interviews (IDIs) and six focus group discussions (FGDs) were conducted among girls ages 14-18 who had begun menstruating. Two FGDs with boys ages 14-18 and 25 key informant interviews were also conducted with teachers, female guardians and traditional leaders to provide the context within which schoolgirls practice MHM. RESULTS: Most girls reported learning about menstruation only at menarche and did not know the physiological basis of menstruation. They reported MHM-related challenges, including: use of non-absorbent and uncomfortable menstrual cloth and inadequate provision of sanitary materials, water, hygiene and sanitation facilities (WASH) in schools. In particular, toilets did not have soap and water or doors and locks for privacy and had a bad odor. Girls' school attendance and participation in physical activities was compromised when menstruating due to fear of teasing (especially by boys) and embarrassment from menstrual leakage. Boys said they could tell when girls were menstruating by the smell and their behaviour, for instance, moving less and isolating themselves from their peers. Girls complained of friction burns on their inner thighs during their long journey to school due to chaffing of wet non-absorbent material used to make menstrual cloth. Girls preferred to dispose used menstrual materials in pit latrines and not waste bins for fear that they could be retrieved for witchcraft against them. Though traditional leaders and female guardians played a pivotal role in teaching girls MHM, they have not resolved challenges to MHM among schoolgirls. CONCLUSION: When menstruating, schoolgirls in rural Zambia would rather stay home than be uncomfortable, inactive and embarrassed due to inadequate MHM facilities at school. A friendly and supportive MHM environment that provides education, absorbent sanitary materials and adequate WASH facilities is essential to providing equal opportunity for all girls.
Overview
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This qualitative exploratory study in six rural schools of Mumbwa and Rufunsa districts, Zambia, found that schoolgirls lacked knowledge about menstruation before menarche and faced inadequate menstrual materials and WASH facilities, leading them to skip school or restrict participation while menstruating. Girls preferred to stay home rather than be uncomfortable, inactive and embarrassed at school.
Key findings
- Most girls learned about menstruation only at menarche and did not know its physiological basis; they reported fear, worry, sadness and devastation at first period (e.g., "I was devastated when I had my first period because I thought my blood was going to run out" — IDI, girl, 14 years).
- Girls commonly used non-absorbent cloth (old chitenge, blanket or general material); only one of the six schools stocked cotton wool for emergencies, and the rest provided only toilet paper. Cloth filled quickly, did not stay in place, was malodorous, and caused friction burns on inner thighs during long walks to school.
- School WASH facilities were inadequate: pit latrines had no piped or stored water, no soap, no doors or locks for privacy, and were dirty and foul-smelling. Pupil-to-latrine ratios were 110:1 in one district and 145:1 in the other; toilets in most schools did not meet WHO functional standards.
- Girls skipped school or avoided class participation and physical activity when menstruating due to fear of teasing (especially by boys) and embarrassment from leakage; boys said they could tell when girls were menstruating by smell and by reduced movement and social isolation. Girls preferred disposing of used materials in pit latrines rather than waste bins for fear of witchcraft.
Methods
- Exploratory qualitative study conducted in July–August 2015 in six purposively sampled rural schools (primary and secondary, with and without School Led Total Sanitation programmes) in Mumbwa and Rufunsa districts, Zambia.
- Data collection comprised 12 in-depth interviews and 6 focus group discussions with girls aged 14–18 who had attained menarche, 2 FGDs with boys aged 14–18, and 25 key informant interviews with teachers (SHN coordinators), female guardians and traditional leaders; a structured observation form assessed school WASH characteristics.
- Thematic analysis was conducted using NVIVO, with indexing to compare data within and between cases and sources; four major themes emerged (knowledge on menstruation and MHM, menstrual materials, school WASH facilities, school attendance and menstruation).
Limitations
- Stated by the paper: findings are limited to rural schools in Zambia and may not reflect urban/peri-urban settings; no in-depth analysis of differences between schools with and without SLTS beyond running water, space and privacy; no insights into school expenditure on MHM or quantification of effects of poor MHM facilities on attendance; the study did not sample for or assess information saturation, and the 2 FGDs with boys may have been insufficient to reach data saturation.
- Evident from the text: the study relies on self-report for attendance and behaviour (no attendance records or quantitative measures), and the small number of schools (six) limits generalizability.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
Integrity signals
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Claims the paper makes
61 Own result · 24 Not checked yet · 10 Own method · 7 Own interpretation · 1 Partly supported · accuracy not yet measured
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Quantitative studies in Ghana and Malawi found moderate to non-significant improvements to school attendance associated with MHM interventions [8, 9].”
§ Menstrual hygiene management in rural schools of Zambia: a descriptive study of knowledge, experiences and challenges faced by schoolgirls > Background
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [8] Hennegan J, Montgomery P. Do menstrual hygiene management interventions improve education and psychosocial outcomes for women and girls in low and middle income countries? A systematic review. PLoS One. 2016;11(2):e0146985. sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Results (Effects of interventions: hardware interventions; page unavailable) report a moderate, non-significant pooled improvement in school attendance from two sanitary-pad studies, including one in Ghana. But the Results (Included studies; page unavailable) list the countries represented and do not include Malawi, so this source does not support the Malawi part of the claim. (LLM, conf=0.88)
- Partly supportedcites [9] Grant M, Lloyd C, Mensch B. Menstruation and school absenteeism: evidence from rural Malawi. Comp Educ Rev. 2013;57(2):260–84. sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Method (Data Source; page unavailable) describes a quantitative survey in rural Malawi, and the Discussion (page unavailable) reports no association between school-level facilities and menstruation-related absenteeism. But this was not an evaluation of an MHM intervention and did not find an improvement in attendance. The Ghana study is outside the scope of this citation. (LLM, conf=0.86)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Partly supported
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Most girls reported that not having access to absorbent menstrual materials was a challenge to managing their menses.”
§ Menstrual hygiene management in rural schools of Zambia: a descriptive study of knowledge, experiences and challenges faced by schoolgirls > Results > Menstrual materials
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“with the majority reporting negative experiences of fear, worry, sadness and devastation at their first period”
§ Menstrual hygiene management in rural schools of Zambia: a descriptive study of knowledge, experiences and challenges faced by schoolgirls > Results > Knowledge on menstruation and MHM
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Both teachers and girls reported lack of structured teaching on MHM.”
§ Menstrual hygiene management in rural schools of Zambia: a descriptive study of knowledge, experiences and challenges faced by schoolgirls > Results > Knowledge on menstruation and MHM
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Most girls reported learning about menstruation only at menarche and did not know the physiological basis of menstruation.”
- Also stated in: § Knowledge on menstruation and MHM · plain
“Girls explained that they learned about menstruation at menarche and did not understand why it happened with the majority reporting negative experiences of fear, worry, sadness and devastation at their first period:”
§ Menstrual hygiene management in rural schools of Zambia: a descriptive study of knowledge, experiences and challenges faced by schoolgirls > Abstract > Results
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Also stated in: § Knowledge on menstruation and MHM · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Girls preferred to dispose used menstrual materials in the pit latrine and not waste bins at school for fear that witches and Satanists would use the menstrual blood to bewitch them and rob them of their fertility:”
§ Menstrual hygiene management in rural schools of Zambia: a descriptive study of knowledge, experiences and challenges faced by schoolgirls > Results > Knowledge on menstruation and MHM
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While the school curriculum covers menstruation as part of health science subjects, the majority of the girls did not know its physiological basis.”
§ Menstrual hygiene management in rural schools of Zambia: a descriptive study of knowledge, experiences and challenges faced by schoolgirls > Results > Knowledge on menstruation and MHM
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Teachers reported that their schools do not have enough funds for menstrual pads.”
§ Menstrual hygiene management in rural schools of Zambia: a descriptive study of knowledge, experiences and challenges faced by schoolgirls > Results > Menstrual materials
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Out of the six schools, only one stocked cotton wool in case of emergencies.”
§ Menstrual hygiene management in rural schools of Zambia: a descriptive study of knowledge, experiences and challenges faced by schoolgirls > Results > Menstrual materials
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Most girls reported that walking long distances to get to school when menstruating led to friction burns on their inner thighs from the wet and rough menstrual cloth.”
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
“Girls complained of friction burns on their inner thighs during their long journey to school due to chaffing of wet non-absorbent material used to make menstrual cloth.”
§ Menstrual hygiene management in rural schools of Zambia: a descriptive study of knowledge, experiences and challenges faced by schoolgirls > Results > Menstrual materials
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
- Probably not a substantial claim. 35
- It may state two separate claims as one. 35
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“girls were told that when menstruating, they should not add salt while cooking as this causes chronic cough in those who eat the food.”
§ Menstrual hygiene management in rural schools of Zambia: a descriptive study of knowledge, experiences and challenges faced by schoolgirls > Results > Knowledge on menstruation and MHM
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Female guardians and traditional leaders revealed that grandmothers, mothers, aunties, older sisters and female teachers taught girls how to behave and take care of themselves during menstruation.”
§ Menstrual hygiene management in rural schools of Zambia: a descriptive study of knowledge, experiences and challenges faced by schoolgirls > Results > Knowledge on menstruation and MHM
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“and that use of certain disposable sanitary pads cause cancer.”
§ Menstrual hygiene management in rural schools of Zambia: a descriptive study of knowledge, experiences and challenges faced by schoolgirls > Results > Knowledge on menstruation and MHM
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Most female guardians and traditional leaders strongly forwarded the view that girls learn about menstruation and its paraphernalia only when they attain menarche with a view that it is when they will understand what is taught to them:”
§ Menstrual hygiene management in rural schools of Zambia: a descriptive study of knowledge, experiences and challenges faced by schoolgirls > Results > Knowledge on menstruation and MHM
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“some girls believed that being physically active during menstruation makes a girl menstruate for a longer period”
§ Menstrual hygiene management in rural schools of Zambia: a descriptive study of knowledge, experiences and challenges faced by schoolgirls > Results > Knowledge on menstruation and MHM
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“some girls revealed that others may not have tight underwear or any underwear at all, making the use of menstrual materials and the menstrual experience very difficult.”
§ Menstrual hygiene management in rural schools of Zambia: a descriptive study of knowledge, experiences and challenges faced by schoolgirls > Results > Menstrual materials
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“which some boys confirmed explaining that they were able to tell when a girl was menstruating from the smell”
§ Menstrual hygiene management in rural schools of Zambia: a descriptive study of knowledge, experiences and challenges faced by schoolgirls > Results > Menstrual materials
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In particular, toilets did not have soap and water or doors and locks for privacy and had a bad odor.”
§ Menstrual hygiene management in rural schools of Zambia: a descriptive study of knowledge, experiences and challenges faced by schoolgirls > Abstract > Results
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Despite most girls using cloth, they stated a preference for disposable sanitary pads especially when they are in school, due to their ability to absorb menstrual blood for longer periods, dry and comfortable feeling, and ease of disposal.”
§ Menstrual hygiene management in rural schools of Zambia: a descriptive study of knowledge, experiences and challenges faced by schoolgirls > Results > Menstrual materials
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Due to this, most girls avoided use of the toilets, with some opting to wait until the end of the school day to use the toilet at home.”
§ Menstrual hygiene management in rural schools of Zambia: a descriptive study of knowledge, experiences and challenges faced by schoolgirls > Results > Water, sanitation and hygiene facilities in schools
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Girls commonly used cloth with only a few being able to access cotton wool from shops or cotton fields or able to afford disposable sanitary pads.”
§ Menstrual hygiene management in rural schools of Zambia: a descriptive study of knowledge, experiences and challenges faced by schoolgirls > Results > Menstrual materials
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While the two schools with SLTS programmes selected in the study had well-constructed toilets connected to the sewer system with enough space and privacy, they had no running water nor soap for hand washing.”
§ Menstrual hygiene management in rural schools of Zambia: a descriptive study of knowledge, experiences and challenges faced by schoolgirls > Results > Water, sanitation and hygiene facilities in schools
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The cloth they used was an old piece of used chitenge (thick sarong-like colourful multi-purpose fabric), blanket or general material which had to be washed for reuse or could be disposed of and replaced by another piece.”
§ Menstrual hygiene management in rural schools of Zambia: a descriptive study of knowledge, experiences and challenges faced by schoolgirls > Results > Menstrual materials
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Girls reported that cloth filled up too quickly and did not stay in place by sticking to underwear leading to telling stains on their uniforms.”
§ Menstrual hygiene management in rural schools of Zambia: a descriptive study of knowledge, experiences and challenges faced by schoolgirls > Results > Menstrual materials
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Direct observation showed that though all the schools had tap water, pit latrines did not have piped or stored water.”
§ Menstrual hygiene management in rural schools of Zambia: a descriptive study of knowledge, experiences and challenges faced by schoolgirls > Results > Water, sanitation and hygiene facilities in schools
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Teachers reported that the cloth used may not be fit for purpose:”
§ Menstrual hygiene management in rural schools of Zambia: a descriptive study of knowledge, experiences and challenges faced by schoolgirls > Results > Menstrual materials
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Pupils realized that the quality of their menstrual material was poor and most likely to stain their dresses.”
§ Menstrual hygiene management in rural schools of Zambia: a descriptive study of knowledge, experiences and challenges faced by schoolgirls > Results > School attendance and menstruation
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It was clear that parents knew the difficulties their daughters faced during menstruation and, most supported and encouraged girls in every way possible to keep attending school.”
§ Menstrual hygiene management in rural schools of Zambia: a descriptive study of knowledge, experiences and challenges faced by schoolgirls > Discussion
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Female guardians said that while girls were taught matters relating to marriage at menarche, emphasis was placed on the need for them to avoid ‘playing’ (a euphemism for sex) with boys as this would put them at risk of getting pregnant and drop out of school.”
§ Menstrual hygiene management in rural schools of Zambia: a descriptive study of knowledge, experiences and challenges faced by schoolgirls > Results > School attendance and menstruation
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“School girls were unable to practice adequate MHM due to lack of preparedness for menarche, access to absorbent materials, and to water, soap and privacy while at school.”
§ Menstrual hygiene management in rural schools of Zambia: a descriptive study of knowledge, experiences and challenges faced by schoolgirls > Discussion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The boys said that it was easy for them to tell when a girl was on her menses just by the way she restricted movements, outdoor play, talking and social interaction.”
§ Menstrual hygiene management in rural schools of Zambia: a descriptive study of knowledge, experiences and challenges faced by schoolgirls > Results > School attendance and menstruation
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This study has shown how cloth inhibits girls’ movements because of fear they will stain their dresses, a feeling stemming directly from the inadequate protection offered by menstrual cloth.”
§ Menstrual hygiene management in rural schools of Zambia: a descriptive study of knowledge, experiences and challenges faced by schoolgirls > Discussion
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Our findings show that girls did not know anything about menstruation before menarche and only received informal education on MHM when they attained menarche.”
- Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
“Our study revealed limited knowledge and alternative views on the biological process of menstruation, usually learned after attaining menarche by the girls interviewed, findings similar to that reported for India by Thakre et al. [31].”
§ Menstrual hygiene management in rural schools of Zambia: a descriptive study of knowledge, experiences and challenges faced by schoolgirls > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [31] Thakre SB, Thakre SS, Reddy M, Rathi N, Pathak K, Ughade S. Menstrual hygiene: knowledge and practice among adolescent school girls of Saoner. Nagpur district J Clin Diagnostic Res. 2011;5(5):1027–33.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Traditional leaders and female guardians reported that they were aware of the many challenges girls faced during menstruation, such as absence of wash rooms at school that tested school attendance.”
§ Menstrual hygiene management in rural schools of Zambia: a descriptive study of knowledge, experiences and challenges faced by schoolgirls > Results > School attendance and menstruation
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“One male teacher explained that girls leave his class without notice or disappear when they are on their periods and do not come back to school until the next day.”
§ Menstrual hygiene management in rural schools of Zambia: a descriptive study of knowledge, experiences and challenges faced by schoolgirls > Results > School attendance and menstruation
plaindirectSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Some parents encouraged girls to attend school and taught them how to take care of themselves and maintain personal hygiene to avoid smell and stains.”
§ Menstrual hygiene management in rural schools of Zambia: a descriptive study of knowledge, experiences and challenges faced by schoolgirls > Results > School attendance and menstruation
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Both girls and teachers revealed that such stains caused a lot of embarrassment for girls and attracted teasing and laughter from other pupils, especially boys.”
§ Menstrual hygiene management in rural schools of Zambia: a descriptive study of knowledge, experiences and challenges faced by schoolgirls > Results > School attendance and menstruation
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“With respect to menstrual material, schoolgirls rely heavily on cloth due to household poverty, which is similar to that found in Northeast Ethiopia where girls used pieces of cloth and rags because of lack of money [7].”
§ Menstrual hygiene management in rural schools of Zambia: a descriptive study of knowledge, experiences and challenges faced by schoolgirls > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [7] Tegegne TK, Sisay MM. Menstrual hygiene management and school absenteeism among female adolescent students in Northeast Ethiopia. BMC Pub Health. 2014;14(1):1118. source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Pupils highlighted one schoolgirl who was teased and never came back to school after that.”
§ Menstrual hygiene management in rural schools of Zambia: a descriptive study of knowledge, experiences and challenges faced by schoolgirls > Results > School attendance and menstruation
plaindirectSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The six schools in the study were purposively sampled in consultation with the District Education Board Secretary (DEBS) staff to include primary and secondary schools located at varying distances from the DEBS and to include those with and without SLTS interventions to understand their impact on girls’ ability to meet their MHM needs.”
§ Menstrual hygiene management in rural schools of Zambia: a descriptive study of knowledge, experiences and challenges faced by schoolgirls > Methods > Sampling
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The field guides used in the study were adapted from the WASH in Schools Empowers Girls’ Education-Tools for MHM Booklet [21].”
§ Menstrual hygiene management in rural schools of Zambia: a descriptive study of knowledge, experiences and challenges faced by schoolgirls > Methods > Data collection
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [21] UNICEF. WASH in Schools Empowers Girls’ Education-Tools for Assessing Menstrual Hygiene Management in Schools. https://www.unicef.org/wash/schools/files/WinS_Empowers_Girls_Education_Tools_For_MHM_Booklet(1).pdf .
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Education of girls directly impacts national health and national development as well as economic and social progress [15, 16].”
§ Menstrual hygiene management in rural schools of Zambia: a descriptive study of knowledge, experiences and challenges faced by schoolgirls > Background
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [15] DFID. Girls’ education: towards a better future for all. London; 2005. source
- Not checked yetcites [16] King EM, Hill MA. Women’s education in developing countries: barriers, benefits, and policies. World Bank Publications; 1997.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Though traditional leaders and female guardians played a pivotal role in teaching girls MHM, they have not resolved challenges to MHM among schoolgirls.”
§ Menstrual hygiene management in rural schools of Zambia: a descriptive study of knowledge, experiences and challenges faced by schoolgirls > Abstract > Results
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Being more likely to practice and seek appropriate preventive and medical services such as personal hygiene, nutrition and immunization, they help reduce infant morbidity and mortality in the nation [17, 18].”
§ Menstrual hygiene management in rural schools of Zambia: a descriptive study of knowledge, experiences and challenges faced by schoolgirls > Background
What the sources say
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Female research assistants with backgrounds in various social science disciplines were trained in human subjects’ protection and research methods by the regulatory and study teams at the Centre for Infectious Disease Research in Zambia.”
§ Menstrual hygiene management in rural schools of Zambia: a descriptive study of knowledge, experiences and challenges faced by schoolgirls > Methods > Data collection
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Educated women tend to have fewer children, lead healthier lifestyles and raise healthier families by making more informed choices [10].”
§ Menstrual hygiene management in rural schools of Zambia: a descriptive study of knowledge, experiences and challenges faced by schoolgirls > Background
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [10] UNICEF. The state of the World’s children 2004-girls, education and development. Unicef; 2003.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“a study in Kenya found that cleanliness of school latrines reduced the odds of absenteeism [3]”
§ Menstrual hygiene management in rural schools of Zambia: a descriptive study of knowledge, experiences and challenges faced by schoolgirls > Background
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [3] Dreibelbis R, Greene LE, Freeman MC, Saboori S, Chase RP, Rheingans R. Water, sanitation, and primary school attendance: a multi-level assessment of determinants of household-reported absence in Kenya. Int J Educ Dev. 2013;33(5):457–65. source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Menstrual hygiene management requires availability of and access to clean and absorbent menstrual material, privacy, water and soap, and disposal facilities for used menstrual materials [12].”
§ Menstrual hygiene management in rural schools of Zambia: a descriptive study of knowledge, experiences and challenges faced by schoolgirls > Background
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [12] JMP. Meeting report of JMP post-2015 global monitoring working group on hygiene. Washington, DC; 2012.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Nor do they have provision for privacy, soap, sanitary pads and disposal of soiled sanitary pads [14].”
§ Menstrual hygiene management in rural schools of Zambia: a descriptive study of knowledge, experiences and challenges faced by schoolgirls > Background
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [14] Sommer M, Caruso BA, Sahin M, Calderon T, Cavill S, Mahon T, et al. A time for global action: addressing girls’ menstrual hygiene management needs in schools. PLoS Med. 2016;13(2):e1001962. source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“This in turn leads to lowered fertility rates and higher market productivity thereby improving the national economy [10].”
§ Menstrual hygiene management in rural schools of Zambia: a descriptive study of knowledge, experiences and challenges faced by schoolgirls > Background
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [10] UNICEF. The state of the World’s children 2004-girls, education and development. Unicef; 2003.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“others suggest that one in ten school-aged girls in low and middle income countries fail to attend school during menstruation or drop out of school at puberty due to the absence of menstrual hygiene management (MHM) facilities [4–7].”
§ Menstrual hygiene management in rural schools of Zambia: a descriptive study of knowledge, experiences and challenges faced by schoolgirls > Background
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [4] WHO. Progress on sanitation and drinking water: 2013 update. In: World Health Organization; 2013.
- Not checked yetcites [5] Boosey R, Prestwich G, Deave T. Menstrual hygiene management amongst schoolgirls in the Rukungiri district of Uganda and the impact on their education: a cross-sectional study. Pan Afr Med J. 2014;19. source
- Not checked yetcites [6] Secor-Turner M, Schmitz K, Benson K. Adolescent experience of menstruation in rural Kenya. Nurs Res. 2016;65(4):301–5. source
- Not checked yetcites [7] Tegegne TK, Sisay MM. Menstrual hygiene management and school absenteeism among female adolescent students in Northeast Ethiopia. BMC Pub Health. 2014;14(1):1118. source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“As found in Nigeria, Kenya and India, alternate views around MHM impacted girls’ choice of menstrual materials, where and how to dispose them, and whether to attend school or not during menstruation [30, 33, 34].”
§ Menstrual hygiene management in rural schools of Zambia: a descriptive study of knowledge, experiences and challenges faced by schoolgirls > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [30] Mason L, Nyothach E, Alexander K, Odhiambo FO, Eleveld A, Vulule J, et al. “We keep it secret so no one should know”–a qualitative study to explore young schoolgirls attitudes and experiences with menstruation in rural Western Kenya. PLoS One. 2013;8(11):e79132. source
- Not checked yetcites [33] Busari, AO. Menstrual Knowledge and Health Care behavior among Adolescent Girls in Rural, Nigeria. Federal College of Education (Sp) Oyo, Nigeria. 2012. http://www.ijastnet.com/journals/Vol_2_No_4_April_2012/20.pdf
- Not checked yetcites [34] Jordanova T, Cronk R, Obando W, Medina OZ, Kinoshita R, Bartram J. Water, sanitation, and hygiene in schools in low socio-economic regions in Nicaragua: a cross-sectional survey. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2015;12(6):6197–217. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph120606197 . source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Our findings are limited to rural schools in Zambia; MHM issues in urban and peri-urban schools maybe different but equally important to understanding the extent of MHM challenges faced by schoolgirls.”
§ Menstrual hygiene management in rural schools of Zambia: a descriptive study of knowledge, experiences and challenges faced by schoolgirls > Discussion
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“However, the 12 IDIs with girls and the 25 KIIs yielded rich information, which is consistent with studies reporting on expected information saturation [42, 43].”
§ Menstrual hygiene management in rural schools of Zambia: a descriptive study of knowledge, experiences and challenges faced by schoolgirls > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [42] Hennink MM, Kaiser BN, Marconi VC. Code saturation versus meaning saturation: how many interviews are enough? Qual Health Res. 2017;27(4):591–608. source
- Not checked yetcites [43] Hagaman AK, Wutich A. How many interviews are enough to identify Metathemes in multisited and cross-cultural research? Another perspective on Guest, Bunce, and Johnson’s (2006) landmark study. Field Methods. 2017;29(1):23–41. source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In rural Malawi, cost of commercial pads was identified as one of the barriers to school attendance [9, 31].”
§ Menstrual hygiene management in rural schools of Zambia: a descriptive study of knowledge, experiences and challenges faced by schoolgirls > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [9] Grant M, Lloyd C, Mensch B. Menstruation and school absenteeism: evidence from rural Malawi. Comp Educ Rev. 2013;57(2):260–84. source
- Not checked yetcites [31] Thakre SB, Thakre SS, Reddy M, Rathi N, Pathak K, Ughade S. Menstrual hygiene: knowledge and practice among adolescent school girls of Saoner. Nagpur district J Clin Diagnostic Res. 2011;5(5):1027–33.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“As also shown elsewhere, inadequate MHM affected girls’ confidence, psychological wellbeing and ability to perform physical activities [9, 30].”
§ Menstrual hygiene management in rural schools of Zambia: a descriptive study of knowledge, experiences and challenges faced by schoolgirls > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [9] Grant M, Lloyd C, Mensch B. Menstruation and school absenteeism: evidence from rural Malawi. Comp Educ Rev. 2013;57(2):260–84. source
- Not checked yetcites [30] Mason L, Nyothach E, Alexander K, Odhiambo FO, Eleveld A, Vulule J, et al. “We keep it secret so no one should know”–a qualitative study to explore young schoolgirls attitudes and experiences with menstruation in rural Western Kenya. PLoS One. 2013;8(11):e79132. source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The Zambian analysts, also fluent in both languages, checked transcriptions against audio recordings rectifying any errors before commencing analysis.”
§ Menstrual hygiene management in rural schools of Zambia: a descriptive study of knowledge, experiences and challenges faced by schoolgirls > Methods > Data collection
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The study has also not provided an in-depth analysis on the differences between MHM practices in the schools with and without SLTS, in exception of the issues surrounding running water, space and privacy discussed for the two SLTS schools included in the study.”
§ Menstrual hygiene management in rural schools of Zambia: a descriptive study of knowledge, experiences and challenges faced by schoolgirls > Discussion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Also, we did not sample for information saturation nor did we assess it.”
§ Menstrual hygiene management in rural schools of Zambia: a descriptive study of knowledge, experiences and challenges faced by schoolgirls > Discussion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Efforts in school sanitation to address girls’ participation in education have largely ignored menstrual management in latrine design and construction with privacy and water availability remaining a challenge [39].”
§ Menstrual hygiene management in rural schools of Zambia: a descriptive study of knowledge, experiences and challenges faced by schoolgirls > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [39] Sommer M. Putting menstrual hygiene management on to the school water and sanitation agenda. Waterlines Practical Action Publishing. 2010;29(4):268–78.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Further, this study does not provide insights into school expenditure on MHM in relation to other school needs or quantify the effects of poor MHM facilities on school attendance.”
§ Menstrual hygiene management in rural schools of Zambia: a descriptive study of knowledge, experiences and challenges faced by schoolgirls > Discussion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This first qualitative study on MHM in rural Zambia found that girls could not maintain menstrual hygiene in school which restricted their school attendance and participation.”
- Also stated in: § Conclusion · hedged
“Our findings suggest that girls in the rural schools are often forced to skip school due to the various challenges they face in practicing menstrual hygiene.”
- Also stated in: § Discussion · hedged
“Nonetheless, our study provides compelling evidence that the menstrual hygiene challenges experienced by schoolgirls in rural Zambia compromise their ability to participate in school activities and for some, their ability to attend classes.”
§ Menstrual hygiene management in rural schools of Zambia: a descriptive study of knowledge, experiences and challenges faced by schoolgirls > Discussion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Conclusion · hedged
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Comfort during menstruation is essential if girls’ attendance is to be consistent for their improved educational attainment.”
§ Menstrual hygiene management in rural schools of Zambia: a descriptive study of knowledge, experiences and challenges faced by schoolgirls > Discussion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
In the paper
“As reported by McMahon et al. from Kenya, poor WASH facilities deters girls from using the facilities at school, with most girls not using them at all and opting to stay home until they finish menstruating [38].”
§ Menstrual hygiene management in rural schools of Zambia: a descriptive study of knowledge, experiences and challenges faced by schoolgirls > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [38] McMahon SA, Winch PJ, Caruso BA, Obure AF, Ogutu EA, Ochari IA, et al. “the girl with her period is the one to hang her head”reflections on menstrual management among schoolgirls in rural Kenya. BMC Int Health Hum Rights. 2011;11(1):7. source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Given the need to keep menstruation private, the manner in which sanitary pads are provided may influence uptake.”
§ Menstrual hygiene management in rural schools of Zambia: a descriptive study of knowledge, experiences and challenges faced by schoolgirls > Discussion
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We conducted 6 FGDs with girls and 2 with boys and the latter may have been insufficient to reach data saturation.”
§ Menstrual hygiene management in rural schools of Zambia: a descriptive study of knowledge, experiences and challenges faced by schoolgirls > Discussion
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Without absorbent and comfortable menstrual materials to use, girls are not able to perform to their full ability.”
§ Menstrual hygiene management in rural schools of Zambia: a descriptive study of knowledge, experiences and challenges faced by schoolgirls > Conclusion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The robust qualitative design allowed the collection of lived experiences from girls and perspectives on MHM from teachers, boys, female guardians and traditional leaders.”
§ Menstrual hygiene management in rural schools of Zambia: a descriptive study of knowledge, experiences and challenges faced by schoolgirls > Discussion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
The paper relies on this without support.
Little attention has been given to understanding the ways in which MHM contributes to school absenteeism and other gender disparities in Zambia.
“Little attention has been given to understanding the ways in which MHM contributes to school absenteeism and other gender disparities in Zambia.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Menstruation is a culturally sensitive topic and may not be freely spoken about in a group setting.
“Menstruation is a culturally sensitive topic and may not be freely spoken about in a group setting.”
The paper relies on this without support.
In Zambia, female literacy levels are approximately 58%.
“which is reflected in the low female literacy levels of approximately 58%.”
The paper relies on this without support.
This is the first qualitative study on MHM in rural Zambia.
“This first qualitative study on MHM in rural Zambia found that girls could not maintain menstrual hygiene in school which restricted their school attendance and participation.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The girls' and teachers' self-reports about menstrual experiences and school attendance accurately reflect their actual experiences and practices.
“Most girls reported that they stayed away from school when they were menstruating for fear of having a “menstrual accident” that stained their uniform.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“Many authors stated that most of their study population had deficits in knowledge of menstrual biology”
From Women’s and girls’ experiences of menstruation in low- and middle-income countries: A systematic review and qualitative metasynthesis (2019) · cites this paper as [44]
In the citing paper
“In others, girls’ post menarche and older women linked menstruation with reproduction but had other lingering questions such as why menstrual bleeding occurred”
From Women’s and girls’ experiences of menstruation in low- and middle-income countries: A systematic review and qualitative metasynthesis (2019) · cites this paper as [44]
In the citing paper
“Several studies noted distress resulting from conflicting advice from different sources (e.g., parents, teachers, nongovernmental organisations [NGOs])”
From Women’s and girls’ experiences of menstruation in low- and middle-income countries: A systematic review and qualitative metasynthesis (2019) · cites this paper as [44]
In the citing paper
“Participants reported fears of infertility or cancer resulting from unhygienic menstrual management [11, 44, 97].”
From Women’s and girls’ experiences of menstruation in low- and middle-income countries: A systematic review and qualitative metasynthesis (2019) · cites this paper as [44]
In the citing paper
“In some studies, authors noted that teachers and NGOs provided menstrual materials, but that this was unreliable [44, 58].”
From Women’s and girls’ experiences of menstruation in low- and middle-income countries: A systematic review and qualitative metasynthesis (2019) · cites this paper as [44]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Menstrual hygiene management in rural schools of Zambia: a descriptive study of knowledge, experiences and challenges faced by schoolgirls > Discussion
“As found in Nigeria, Kenya and India, alternate views around MHM impacted girls’ choice of menstrual materials, where and how to dispose them, and whether to attend school or not during menstruation [30, 33, 34].”
§ Menstrual hygiene management in rural schools of Zambia: a descriptive study of knowledge, experiences and challenges faced by schoolgirls > References
“34. Jordanova T Cronk R Obando W Medina OZ Kinoshita R Bartram J Water, sanitation, and hygiene in schools in low socio-economic regions in Nicaragua: a cross-sectional survey”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Menstrual hygiene management in rural schools of Zambia: a descriptive study of knowledge, experiences and challenges faced by schoolgirls > Discussion
“This has also been found in other countries such as Nicaragua. Without water, these toilets become dirty quickly [37].”
§ Menstrual hygiene management in rural schools of Zambia: a descriptive study of knowledge, experiences and challenges faced by schoolgirls > References
“37. Montgomery P Ryus CR Dolan CS Dopson S Scott LM Sanitary pad interventions for girls’ education in Ghana: a pilot study”
Citations
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Content analysis and thematic analysis: Implications for conducting a qualitative descriptive study
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Code Saturation Versus Meaning Saturation: How Many Interviews Are Enough?
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“Being more likely to practice and seek appropriate preventive and medical services such as personal hygiene, nutrition and immunization, they help reduce infant morbidity and mortality in the nation [17, 18].”
BackgroundEducation for Extinction: American Indians and the Boarding School Experience, 1875-1928
Vaughn, C., & Adams, D. W. (1996) · Western Historical Quarterly · doi:10.2307/970154 · Cited by 719
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The Implication of Using NVivo Software in Qualitative Data Analysis: Evidence-Based Reflections
Zamawe, C. O. F. (2015) · Malawi Medical Journal · doi:10.4314/mmj.v27i1.4 · Cited by 563
Women's Education in Developing Countries: Barriers, Benefits, and Policies
Lloyd, C. B., King, E. M., & Hill, M. A. (1994) · Population and Development Review · doi:10.2307/2137674 · Cited by 449
A Time for Global Action: Addressing Girls’ Menstrual Hygiene Management Needs in Schools
Sommer, M., Caruso, B. A., Sahin, M., Calderon, T., Cavill, S., Mahon, T., & Phillips-Howard, P. A. (2016) · PLOS Medicine · doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1001962 · Cited by 435
Research works printed but not linked: 1
- Kamaljit K, Arora B, Singh KG, Neki NS. Social beliefs and practices associated with menstrual hygiene among adolescent girls of Amritsar, Punjab. India J Int Med Sci Acad. 2012;25(2):69–70.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Hennegan, J., Shannon, A. K., Rubli, J., Schwab, K. J., & Melendez-Torres, G. J. (2019) · PLOS Medicine · doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1002803 · Cited by 577
“…Umeora 2008 [97]; WSSCC 2014 [102] Resource Limitations Physical environment (n = 13) Budhathoki 2018 [40]; Caruso 2017 [16]; Chebii 2018 [43]; Chinyama 2019 [44]; Daniels 2016 [51]; Girod 2017 [58]; Lahme 2016 [68, 69]; Morrison 2016 [72]; Rheinlander 2018 [81]; Schmitt 2017 [83]; Scorgie…”
BackgroundInfluentialSommer, M., Caruso, B. A., Torondel, B., Warren, E. C., Yamakoshi, B., Haver, J., Long, J. L., Mahon, T., Nalinponguit, E., Okwaro, N., et al. (2021) · Health Research Policy and Systems · doi:10.1186/s12961-020-00669-8 · Cited by 169
Mohammed, S., & Larsen-Reindorf, R. E. (2020) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0241106 · Cited by 161
Sommer, M., Torondel, B., Hennegan, J. M., Phillips‐Howard, P. A., Mahon, T., Motivans, A., Zulaika, G., Gruer, C., Haver, J., Caruso, B. A., et al. (2021) · Global Health Action · doi:10.1080/16549716.2021.1920315 · Cited by 174
Okesanya, O. J., Eshun, G., Ukoaka, B. M., Manirambona, E., Olaleke, N. O., Adesola, R. O., Okon, I. I., Jamil, S., Singh, A., Lucero‐Prisno, D. E., et al. (2024) · Tropical Medicine and Health · doi:10.1186/s41182-024-00614-3 · Cited by 161
“In educational settings, access to water, sanitation, and hygiene improves school attendance and performance, particularly for young girls, emphasizing the link between WASH and education [40].”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Chinyama, J., Chipungu, J., Rudd, C., Mwale, M., Verstraete, L., Sikamo, C., Mutale, W., Chilengi, R., & Sharma, A.
- Affiliations
- Centre for Infectious Disease Research in Zambia (ZM)
- United Nations Children's Fund (US)
- University of Zambia (ZM)
- Venue
- BMC Public Health
- Published
- 2019-01-05
- Volume
- 19
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 16-16
- ISSN
- 1471-2458 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC6321718
- OpenAlex
- W2906739964
- Semantic Scholar
- 37483fab775f9b678d500ce518c2845911468220
- Cited by
- 163
- References
- 38
- Citations by year
- 2026: 23 · 2025: 24 · 2024: 25 · 2023: 34 · 2022: 23 · 2021: 22 · 2020: 9 · 2019: 3
- FWCI
- 13.12
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- BMC Public Health (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Funders
- Canadian Government (ZAMPCA/WASH/001/2015)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Menstrual Health and Disorders
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Adolescent Sexual and Reproductive Health
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Reproductive Medicine › Hypothalamic control of reproductive hormones
- Keywords
- menstrual hygiene management, female students, rural schools, menstrual knowledge, sanitary products, school sanitation facilities, school attendance, peer teasing, witchcraft beliefs, traditional leaders, menstrual taboos
- MeSH terms
- Absenteeism, Adolescent, Female, Humans, Hygiene, Health Knowledge, Attitudes, Practice, Male, Menstruation, Rural Population, Sanitation, Schools, Zambia, Focus Groups, Qualitative Research, Menstrual Hygiene Products
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-08, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-08 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Cited sources are checked with a language model’s help (gpt-6-sol).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
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