CoChat
Sign Up
Cited by 756Alzheimer's disease research and treatmentsDementia and Cognitive Impairment ResearchNeuroinflammation and Neurodegeneration Mechanisms

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 319 of the 319 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

ApoE in Alzheimer’s disease: pathophysiology and therapeutic strategies

Open access
Raulin, Ana-Caroline, Doss, Sydney V., Trottier, Zachary A., Ikezu, Tadafumi C., Bu, Guojun, Liu, Chia-Chen·2022·Molecular Neurodegeneration
DOI 10.1186/s13024-022-00574-4PMC PMC9644639
Open this paper in CoChat — free accountOpen PDF

Abstract

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most common cause of dementia worldwide, and its prevalence is rapidly increasing due to extended lifespans. Among the increasing number of genetic risk factors identified, the apolipoprotein E ( APOE ) gene remains the strongest and most prevalent, impacting more than half of all AD cases. While the ε4 allele of the APOE gene significantly increases AD risk, the ε2 allele is protective relative to the common ε3 allele. These gene alleles encode three apoE protein isoforms that differ at two amino acid positions. The primary physiological function of apoE is to mediate lipid transport in the brain and periphery; however, additional functions of apoE in diverse biological functions have been recognized. Pathogenically, apoE seeds amyloid-β (Aβ) plaques in the brain with apoE4 driving earlier and more abundant amyloids. ApoE isoforms also have differential effects on multiple Aβ-related or Aβ-independent pathways. The complexity of apoE biology and pathobiology presents challenges to designing effective apoE-targeted therapeutic strategies. This review examines the key pathobiological pathways of apoE and related targeting strategies with a specific focus on the latest technological advances and tools.

Overview

The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.

Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.

A few free checks a day · papers already verified open instantly · results are public

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1186/s13024-022-00574-4

Cites

319 of 319 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Figures

Fig. 1 Structural model of apoE highlighting AD-related amino acid variations. ApoE is a 299 amino acid glycoprotein with a molecular weight of 34 kDa (PDB 2L7B). It is formed of two independently folded domains linked by a hinge region: the N-terminal domain (residues 1-167) contains the receptor-binding region while the C-terminal domain (residues 206–299) includes the lipid-binding region. There are three major apoE isoforms that differ at amino acid positions 112 and 158: apoE2 (C112/C158); apoE3 (C112/R158); and apoE4 (R112/R158). Additional rare apoE variants have been identified: apoE3-Christchurch (R136S), apoE3-Jacksonville (apoE3-V236E), and apoE4-R251G
Fig. 1 Structural model of apoE highlighting AD-related amino acid variations. ApoE is a 299 amino acid glycoprotein with a molecular weight of 34 kDa (PDB 2L7B). It is formed of two independently folded domains linked by a hinge region: the N-terminal domain (residues 1-167) contains the receptor-binding region while the C-terminal domain (residues 206–299) includes the lipid-binding region. There are three major apoE isoforms that differ at amino acid positions 112 and 158: apoE2 (C112/C158); apoE3 (C112/R158); and apoE4 (R112/R158). Additional rare apoE variants have been identified: apoE3-Christchurch (R136S), apoE3-Jacksonville (apoE3-V236E), and apoE4-R251GCC BY · PubMed Central
Fig. 2 ApoE-targeted therapeutic strategies for AD. One avenue of AD therapy is modulating apoE expression from various cell types. This can be achieved through LXR/RXR agonists which increase apoE levels and lipidation. LXR/RXRs are upstream regulators of apoE expression making them a suitable target for modulating apoE levels. Targeting apoE should also consider the isoform- and cell type-specific effects. Another apoE-targeted therapeutic strategy is the use of small molecules that modulate apoE functions. These include peptides designed to mimic the binding site for apoE on LDL and HDL, which has been shown to increase apoE lipidation and secretion. Additionally, mimetic peptides can increase the function of apoE receptors to improve cholesterol transport. Small molecules or immunotherapies that prevent apoE self-association and/or aggregation may increase the lipid carrying capacity of apoE and reduce Aβ seeding. Similarly, modulating the lipidation of apoE has become an interesting target. Mimetic peptides can be used to increase the activity of ABCA1, which increases the lipidation of apoE4 and improves cognitive function. This can also be achieved through anti-sense oligonucleotide (ASO) inhibition of miR-33. Another promising therapeutic avenue is structural modification of apoE through genetic manipulation or small molecules. The CRISPR/Cas9 system has the potential to directly convert APOE4 to APOE3 or APOE2. This may also be achieved through an AAV system to induce apoE2 expression. A similar approach without genetic manipulation would be small molecule inhibitors to reduce interdomain interactions and structurally modify apoE to alter its function. Lastly, targeting peripheral apoE may be an alternative avenue for AD therapy. For example, plasma exchange by infusing APOE3 young plasma in APOE4 carriers is currently being tested in clinical trials to determine the beneficial effects of young plasma and the isoform-dependent effects. While these various therapeutic approaches have shown some promise in preclinical and clinical settings, they have yet to make a significant impact on the overall prognosis of AD. Research continues to seek alternative approaches to refine the current therapeutic strategies. Presently, many new technologies are being employed to discover new targets and networks such as transcriptomics, proteomics, lipidomics, and metabolomics. These multi-omics and integrative analysis may help better inform future apoE-related disease modifying therapy for AD.
Fig. 2 ApoE-targeted therapeutic strategies for AD. One avenue of AD therapy is modulating apoE expression from various cell types. This can be achieved through LXR/RXR agonists which increase apoE levels and lipidation. LXR/RXRs are upstream regulators of apoE expression making them a suitable target for modulating apoE levels. Targeting apoE should also consider the isoform- and cell type-specific effects. Another apoE-targeted therapeutic strategy is the use of small molecules that modulate apoE functions. These include peptides designed to mimic the binding site for apoE on LDL and HDL, which has been shown to increase apoE lipidation and secretion. Additionally, mimetic peptides can increase the function of apoE receptors to improve cholesterol transport. Small molecules or immunotherapies that prevent apoE self-association and/or aggregation may increase the lipid carrying capacity of apoE and reduce Aβ seeding. Similarly, modulating the lipidation of apoE has become an interesting target. Mimetic peptides can be used to increase the activity of ABCA1, which increases the lipidation of apoE4 and improves cognitive function. This can also be achieved through anti-sense oligonucleotide (ASO) inhibition of miR-33. Another promising therapeutic avenue is structural modification of apoE through genetic manipulation or small molecules. The CRISPR/Cas9 system has the potential to directly convert APOE4 to APOE3 or APOE2. This may also be achieved through an AAV system to induce apoE2 expression. A similar approach without genetic manipulation would be small molecule inhibitors to reduce interdomain interactions and structurally modify apoE to alter its function. Lastly, targeting peripheral apoE may be an alternative avenue for AD therapy. For example, plasma exchange by infusing APOE3 young plasma in APOE4 carriers is currently being tested in clinical trials to determine the beneficial effects of young plasma and the isoform-dependent effects. While these various therapeutic approaches have shown some promise in preclinical and clinical settings, they have yet to make a significant impact on the overall prognosis of AD. Research continues to seek alternative approaches to refine the current therapeutic strategies. Presently, many new technologies are being employed to discover new targets and networks such as transcriptomics, proteomics, lipidomics, and metabolomics. These multi-omics and integrative analysis may help better inform future apoE-related disease modifying therapy for AD.CC BY · PubMed Central
Fig. 3 Lifestyle changes can influence the pathogenesis of AD. ApoE4 has been shown to increase Aβ and tau aggregation, inflammation, and lipid dysregulation while reducing glucose metabolism, microbiome diversity, and BBB integrity. Healthy lifestyle changes have been suggested to benefit cognitive function and ameliorate AD pathology even in the presence of APOE4. Studies have demonstrated that ketogenic and Mediterranean diets as well as dietary supplements such as DHA can improve clinical outcomes. Along with diet, exercise has been shown to improve AD prognosis in apoE4 carriers. Chronic sleep disturbance appears to accelerate Aβ and tau pathology and exacerbate cognitive symptoms. The influence of APOE4 on sleep quality may lead to sleep disturbances in people at increased risk for dementia. Thus, improving sleep quality could reduce AD pathology and attenuate the negative impact of APOE4 on AD risk. The communication between gut microbiome and the brain, the microbiota-gut-brain axis, plays an important role in modulating AD pathology. ApoE isoforms have been shown to differentially modulate microbiome diversity. Evidence supports the use of sesamol to reshape the gut microbiome and prevent systemic inflammation. Thus, understanding the link between AD, apoE, and gut microbiota modulated through dietary approaches may offer avenues for identifying novel biomarkers and therapeutic strategies against AD
Fig. 3 Lifestyle changes can influence the pathogenesis of AD. ApoE4 has been shown to increase Aβ and tau aggregation, inflammation, and lipid dysregulation while reducing glucose metabolism, microbiome diversity, and BBB integrity. Healthy lifestyle changes have been suggested to benefit cognitive function and ameliorate AD pathology even in the presence of APOE4. Studies have demonstrated that ketogenic and Mediterranean diets as well as dietary supplements such as DHA can improve clinical outcomes. Along with diet, exercise has been shown to improve AD prognosis in apoE4 carriers. Chronic sleep disturbance appears to accelerate Aβ and tau pathology and exacerbate cognitive symptoms. The influence of APOE4 on sleep quality may lead to sleep disturbances in people at increased risk for dementia. Thus, improving sleep quality could reduce AD pathology and attenuate the negative impact of APOE4 on AD risk. The communication between gut microbiome and the brain, the microbiota-gut-brain axis, plays an important role in modulating AD pathology. ApoE isoforms have been shown to differentially modulate microbiome diversity. Evidence supports the use of sesamol to reshape the gut microbiome and prevent systemic inflammation. Thus, understanding the link between AD, apoE, and gut microbiota modulated through dietary approaches may offer avenues for identifying novel biomarkers and therapeutic strategies against ADCC BY · PubMed Central

Verification

Claims the paper makes

The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.

Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.

A few free checks a day · papers already verified open instantly · results are public

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

The self-check needs the paper’s full text.

Citations

Cites

2 retracted

Show all 317 references

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Items 601–700 of 755

Related

See all

Metadata

Authors
Raulin, A.-C., Doss, S. V., Trottier, Z. A., Ikezu, T. C., Bu, G., & Liu, C.-C.
Affiliations
Mayo Clinic in Florida (US)
Corresponding author
  • Bu, Guojun
  • Liu, Chia-Chen
ORCID
Venue
Molecular Neurodegeneration
Publisher
Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published
2022-11-08
Volume
17
Issue
1
Pages
72-72
ISSN
1750-1326 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1186/s13024-022-00574-4
PMC
PMC9644639
OpenAlex
W4308572221
Cited by
756
References
317
Citations by year
2026: 222 · 2025: 266 · 2024: 187 · 2023: 81
FWCI
18.38
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Molecular Neurodegeneration (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion)
  • Rare & Special e-Zone (The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology) (submittedVersion)
Funders
  • NIH Blueprint for Neuroscience Research (R37AG027924, RF1AG057181, U19AG069701, U19AG069701, R01AG062110)
  • Cure Alzheimer’s Fund (Cure Alzheimer’s Fund)
Topics
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Alzheimer's disease research and treatments
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Dementia and Cognitive Impairment Research
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Neurology › Neuroinflammation and Neurodegeneration Mechanisms
Keywords
apolipoprotein E, Alzheimer's disease, APOE ε4, APOE isoforms, amyloid plaques, lipid transport, genetic risk factors
MeSH terms
Alleles, Alzheimer Disease, Apolipoproteins E, Humans, Amyloid beta-Peptides, Apolipoprotein E4, Plaque, Amyloid

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review