The DOI matches its Crossref record; 56 of the 56 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Subcutaneous dirofilariosis (Dirofilaria repens): an infection spreading throughout the old world
Open accessAbstract
BACKGROUND: Two main Dirofilaria species infect dogs: D. immitis and D. repens. While D. immitis has a worldwide distribution, D. repens is currently found only in Europe, Asia, and Africa. Adult D. repens are located in subcutaneous tissues of natural hosts where they survive for long periods of time. First-stage larvae, microfilariae, circulate in the peripheral bloodstream, where they are taken up by the mosquito intermediate hosts. Infected mosquitoes then transmit infective third-stage (L3) larvae to new hosts through the blood meal. In dogs, most infections are asymptomatic, although cutaneous disorders such as pruritus, dermal swelling, subcutaneous nodules, and ocular conjunctivitis can be observed. Currently, two factors have increased the concerns about this parasitic infection 1) its spread throughout the European countries and to other continents and its prevalence in dog populations, where in some cases it has overcome D. immitis; and 2) its zoonotic potential, which is much greater than that of D. immitis. RESULTS: Different hypotheses can be put forward to explain these concerns. First, climate change has allowed more favorable conditions for survival of culicid vectors. Second, accidental hosts such as humans may have a less efficient immune reaction against a parasite that is located in subcutaneous tissues, and thus less exposed to the host's immune response than, for instance, D. immitis. Furthermore, the absence of clinical signs in the majority of canine infections and the difficulty in diagnosing the infection, due to the lack of serologic tests and thus the reliance on the identification of microfilariae and differentiation from D. immitis to confirm the presence of the parasite, favor the further spread of this species. Finally, among the macrocyclic lactones currently used to prevent heartworm infection, only moxidectin has been found to be fully effective against the infective larvae transmitted by mosquitoes and partially effective (efficacy 96%) against adult D. repens in experimental studies. CONCLUSIONS: Dirofilaria repens infection is much more difficult than D. immitis to diagnose and control in the reservoir population (microfilaremic dogs). In addition, lack of familiarity with D. repens infection could lead to lack of vigilance underestimation for this parasite. The number of human cases in Europe and Asia is currently a serious public health concern. Medical doctors and veterinarians must collaborate closely for better control and surveillance of D. repens infection.
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“D. repens affects dogs and other carnivores, causing subcutaneous dirofilariasis [44,45].”
From Emergent and Neglected Equine Filariosis in Egypt: Species Diversity and Host Immune Response (2022) · cites this paper as [44]
In the citing paper
“Several epidemiological reviews carried out in this regard [1,2,4,9,168] discussed some of these factors, such as the movement of microfilaremic reservoirs from endemic areas or travel of pets from heartworm-free regions to endemic areas.”
From What has happened to heartworm disease in Europe in the last 10 years? (2022) · cites this paper as [168]
In the citing paper
“The number of publications reporting Dirofilaria spp. infections have increased in the last two decades compared to the previous century [18, 22].”
From Vectors, host range, and spatial distribution of Dirofilaria immitis and D. repens in Europe: a systematic review (2025) · cites this paper as [18]
In the citing paper
“Additionally, rapid tests are only available for D. immitis and not D. repens.”
From Vectors, host range, and spatial distribution of Dirofilaria immitis and D. repens in Europe: a systematic review (2025) · cites this paper as [18]
In the citing paper
“Furthermore, it has been proposed that D. repens is more difficult to control, because, as mentioned above, rapid tests are only available for D. immitis and current preventative and curative treatments are designed for D. immitis and are not as effective against D. repens [18].”
From Vectors, host range, and spatial distribution of Dirofilaria immitis and D. repens in Europe: a systematic review (2025) · cites this paper as [18]
In the citing paper
“Typically, there are no inflammatory reactions or capsules located around the parasite, which actively moves under the connective tissue layers (Genchi and Kramer 2017).”
From Current trends in canine dirofilariosis in Austria-do we face a pre-endemic status? (2020) · cites this paper as Genchi and Kramer 2017
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Cites
Human and animal dirofilariasis: The emergence of a zoonotic mosaic
Simón, F., Siles-Lucas, M., Morchón, R., González-Miguel, J., Mellado, I., Carretón, E., & Montoya-Alonso, J. A. (2012) · Clinical Microbiology Reviews · doi:10.1128/cmr.00012-12 · Cited by 834
Chapter 4 Heartworm Disease in Animals and Humans
McCall, J. W., Genchi, C., Kramer, L. H., Guerrero, J., & Venco, L. (2008) · Advances in Parasitology · doi:10.1016/s0065-308x(08)00204-2 · Cited by 609
Self-citationPampiglione, S., & Rivasi, F. (2000) · PubMed · Cited by 264
Human dirofilariasis due to Dirofilaria (Nochtiella) repens: a review of world literature.
Pampiglione, S., Trotti, G. C., & Rivasi, F. (1995) · PubMed · Cited by 218
Dirofilarial Infections in Europe
Genchi, C., Kramer, L. H., & Rivasi, F. (2011) · Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases · doi:10.1089/vbz.2010.0247 · Cited by 214
Self-citationGenchi, C., Mortarino, M., Rinaldi, L., Cringoli, G., Traldi, G., & Genchi, M. (2011) · Veterinary Parasitology · doi:10.1016/j.vetpar.2011.01.012 · Cited by 209
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Interaction of macrocyclic lactones with P-glycoprotein: Structure–affinity relationship
Lespine, A., Martin, S., Dupuy, J., Roulet, A., Pineau, T., Orlowski, S., & Alvinerie, M. (2006) · European Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.ejps.2006.10.004 · Cited by 182
Dirofilariosis in the Americas: a more virulent Dirofilaria immitis?
Dantas‐Torres, F., & Otranto, D. (2013) · Parasites & Vectors · doi:10.1186/1756-3305-6-288 · Cited by 165
Trotz‐William, L. A., & Trees, A. J. (2003) · Veterinary Record · doi:10.1136/vr.152.4.97 · Cited by 129
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
Recent advances on Dirofilaria repens in dogs and humans in Europe
Capelli, G., Genchi, C., Baneth, G., Bourdeau, P., Brianti, E., Cardoso, L., Danesi, P., Fuehrer, H.-P., Giannelli, A., Ionică, A. M., et al. (2018) · Parasites & Vectors · doi:10.1186/s13071-018-3205-x · Cited by 298
Self-citationThe prevalence of Dirofilaria immitis and D. repens in the Old World
Genchi, C., & Kramer, L. H. (2020) · Veterinary Parasitology · doi:10.1016/j.vetpar.2019.108995 · Cited by 187
Self-citationZoonotic nematodes of wild carnivores
Otranto, D., & Deplazes, P. (2019) · International Journal for Parasitology Parasites and Wildlife · doi:10.1016/j.ijppaw.2018.12.011 · Cited by 174
Simón, F., Diosdado, A., Siles‐Lucas, M., Kartashev, V. V., & González‐Miguel, J. (2021) · Transboundary and Emerging Diseases · doi:10.1111/tbed.14210 · Cited by 80
Laidoudi, Y., Davoust, B., Varloud, M., Niang, E. H. A., Fenollar, F., & Mediannikov, O. (2020) · Parasites & Vectors · doi:10.1186/s13071-020-04185-0 · Cited by 74
Metadata
- Authors
- Genchi, C., & Kramer, L.
- Affiliations
- University of Milan (IT)
- University of Parma (IT)
- Corresponding author
- Genchi, Claudio
- ORCID
- Kramer, Laura
- Venue
- Parasites & Vectors
- Published
- 2017-11
- Volume
- 10
- Issue
- S2
- Pages
- 517-517
- ISSN
- 1756-3305 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC5688444
- OpenAlex
- W2767740195
- Cited by
- 159
- References
- 56
- Citations by year
- 2026: 12 · 2025: 21 · 2024: 11 · 2023: 20 · 2022: 22 · 2021: 19 · 2020: 22 · 2019: 22 · 2018: 10
- FWCI
- 2.25
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by
- Locations
- Parasites & Vectors (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Infectious Diseases › Parasitic Diseases Research and Treatment
- Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Parasitology › Helminth infection and control
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Research on Leishmaniasis Studies
- Keywords
- Dirofilaria repens, canine heartworm disease, Dirofilaria immitis, zoonotic transmission, macrocyclic lactones, microfilariae, serological diagnosis, disease surveillance, public health problem, dogs as reservoir
- MeSH terms
- Africa, Animals, Asia, Dirofilariasis, Dog Diseases, Dogs, Europe, Humans, Subcutaneous Tissue, Dirofilaria repens
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