Subcutaneous dirofilariosis (Dirofilaria repens): an infection spreading throughout the old world
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BACKGROUND: Two main Dirofilaria species infect dogs: D. immitis and D. repens. While D. immitis has a worldwide distribution, D. repens is currently found only in Europe, Asia, and Africa. Adult D. repens are located in subcutaneous tissues of natural hosts where they survive for long periods of time. First-stage larvae, microfilariae, circulate in the peripheral bloodstream, where they are taken up by the mosquito intermediate hosts. Infected mosquitoes then transmit infective third-stage (L3) larvae to new hosts through the blood meal. In dogs, most infections are asymptomatic, although cutaneous disorders such as pruritus, dermal swelling, subcutaneous nodules, and ocular conjunctivitis can be observed. Currently, two factors have increased the concerns about this parasitic infection 1) its spread throughout the European countries and to other continents and its prevalence in dog populations, where in some cases it has overcome D. immitis; and 2) its zoonotic potential, which is much greater than that of D. immitis. RESULTS: Different hypotheses can be put forward to explain these concerns. First, climate change has allowed more favorable conditions for survival of culicid vectors. Second, accidental hosts such as humans may have a less efficient immune reaction against a parasite that is located in subcutaneous tissues, and thus less exposed to the host's immune response than, for instance, D. immitis. Furthermore, the absence of clinical signs in the majority of canine infections and the difficulty in diagnosing the infection, due to the lack of serologic tests and thus the reliance on the identification of microfilariae and differentiation from D. immitis to confirm the presence of the parasite, favor the further spread of this species. Finally, among the macrocyclic lactones currently used to prevent heartworm infection, only moxidectin has been found to be fully effective against the infective larvae transmitted by mosquitoes and partially effective (efficacy 96%) against adult D. repens in experimental studies. CONCLUSIONS: Dirofilaria repens infection is much more difficult than D. immitis to diagnose and control in the reservoir population (microfilaremic dogs). In addition, lack of familiarity with D. repens infection could lead to lack of vigilance underestimation for this parasite. The number of human cases in Europe and Asia is currently a serious public health concern. Medical doctors and veterinarians must collaborate closely for better control and surveillance of D. repens infection.
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D. repens affects dogs and other carnivores, causing subcutaneous dirofilariasis.
“D. repens affects dogs and other carnivores, causing subcutaneous dirofilariasis [44,45].”
From Emergent and Neglected Equine Filariosis in Egypt: Species Diversity and Host Immune Response (2022) · cites this paper as [44]
Movement of microfilaremic reservoirs from endemic areas or travel of pets from heartworm-free regions to endemic areas is a factor that could directly influence changes in distribution and expansion of D. immitis.
“Several epidemiological reviews carried out in this regard [1,2,4,9,168] discussed some of these factors, such as the movement of microfilaremic reservoirs from endemic areas or travel of pets from heartworm-free regions to endemic areas.”
From What has happened to heartworm disease in Europe in the last 10 years? (2022) · cites this paper as [168]
The number of publications reporting Dirofilaria spp. infections has increased in the last two decades compared to the previous century.
“The number of publications reporting Dirofilaria spp. infections have increased in the last two decades compared to the previous century [18, 22].”
From Vectors, host range, and spatial distribution of Dirofilaria immitis and D. repens in Europe: a systematic review (2025) · cites this paper as [18]
Rapid tests are only available for D. immitis and not for D. repens.
“Additionally, rapid tests are only available for D. immitis and not D. repens.”
From Vectors, host range, and spatial distribution of Dirofilaria immitis and D. repens in Europe: a systematic review (2025) · cites this paper as [18]
Dirofilaria repens is more difficult to control because rapid tests are only available for D. immitis and current preventative and curative treatments are designed for D. immitis and are not as effective against D. repens.
“Furthermore, it has been proposed that D. repens is more difficult to control, because, as mentioned above, rapid tests are only available for D. immitis and current preventative and curative treatments are designed for D. immitis and are not as effective against D. repens [18].”
From Vectors, host range, and spatial distribution of Dirofilaria immitis and D. repens in Europe: a systematic review (2025) · cites this paper as [18]
Typically, there are no inflammatory reactions or capsules located around the parasite, which actively moves under the connective tissue layers.
“Typically, there are no inflammatory reactions or capsules located around the parasite, which actively moves under the connective tissue layers (Genchi and Kramer 2017).”
From Current trends in canine dirofilariosis in Austria-do we face a pre-endemic status? (2020) · cites this paper as Genchi and Kramer 2017
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BackgroundHuman Dirofilariasis Infection in the Forehead: A Case Report
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- Authors
- Genchi, C., & Kramer, L.
- Affiliations
- University of Milan (IT)
- University of Parma (IT)
- Corresponding author
- Genchi, Claudio
- ORCID
- Kramer, Laura
- Venue
- Parasites & Vectors
- Published
- 2017-11
- Volume
- 10
- Issue
- S2
- Pages
- 517-517
- ISSN
- 1756-3305 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC5688444
- OpenAlex
- W2767740195
- Cited by
- 159
- References
- 56
- Citations by year
- 2026: 12 · 2025: 21 · 2024: 11 · 2023: 20 · 2022: 22 · 2021: 19 · 2020: 22 · 2019: 22 · 2018: 10
- FWCI
- 2.25
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by
- Locations
- Parasites & Vectors (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Infectious Diseases › Parasitic Diseases Research and Treatment
- Health Sciences › Veterinary › Small Animals › Helminth infection and control
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Research on Leishmaniasis Studies
- Keywords
- Dirofilaria repens, canine heartworm disease, Dirofilaria immitis, zoonotic transmission, macrocyclic lactones, microfilariae, serological diagnosis, disease surveillance, public health problem, dogs as reservoir
- MeSH terms
- Africa, Animals, Asia, Dirofilariasis, Dog Diseases, Dogs, Europe, Humans, Subcutaneous Tissue, Dirofilaria repens
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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