The role of growth hormone in T-cell development and reconstitution
Abstract
Growth hormone (GH), directly or through GH-induction of insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-1, has been implicated in lymphocyte development and function. Recent studies have questioned the role of GH and IGF-1 in immune responses. This review examines experimental data describing the immunoregulatory function of GH and attempts to reconcile the literature.
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Thymus size is increased in old mice given either growth hormone or IGF-1.
“numerous studies (42) have shown that thymus size is increased in old mice administered either hormone (101, 103).”
From Causes, consequences, and reversal of immune system aging (2013) · cites this paper as [103]
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InfluentialSelf-citationLeng, S. X., Hung, W.-H., Cappola, A. R., Yu, Q., Xue, Q., & Fried, L. P. (2009) · The Journals of Gerontology Series A · doi:10.1093/gerona/gln047 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
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“Intrathymic IL-7 in turn promotes and regulates T cell survival and function [62].”
BackgroundTaub, D. D. (2007) · Vitamins and hormones · doi:10.1016/s0083-6729(06)77014-5 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Heyer, C. M. E., Weiss, E., Schmucker, S. S., Rodehutscord, M., Hoelzle, L. E., Mosenthin, R., & Stefanski, V. (2015) · Nutrition Research Reviews · doi:10.1017/s0954422415000049 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
“This suggests that growth-related hormones with immune-modulatory properties such as somatotropin or cortisol have a direct impact on immune cell function and migration((110,111)).”
BackgroundRejuvenation of the aging T cell compartment
Holland, A. M., & van den Brink, M. R. M. (2009) · Current Opinion in Immunology · doi:10.1016/j.coi.2009.06.002 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Chen, B. J., Deoliveira, D., Spasojević, I., Sempowski, G. D., Jiang, C., Owzar, K., Wang, X., Gesty‐Palmer, D., Cline, J. M., Bourland, J. D., et al. (2010) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0011056 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
“Since rhGH has previously been demonstrated by our group and others to be able to facilitate immune recovery post hematopoietic stem cells transplantation and immunosuppressive therapy [10,11,12], we sought to determine whether rhGH can elicit the same effect post radiation exposure on the residual host cells.”
BackgroundClinical strategies to enhance T cell reconstitution
Goldberg, G. L., Zakrzewski, J. L., Perales, M., & van den Brink, M. R. M. (2007) · Seminars in Immunology · doi:10.1016/j.smim.2007.08.001 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
“Studies by Welniak et al. (2002) suggest that the results observed in the GH deficient dwarf mice are variable and are dependent on stress, weaning age and conditions under which the mice are housed 108.”
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Hormones in the immune system and their possible role. A critical review
Csaba, G. (2014) · Acta Microbiologica et Immunologica Hungarica · doi:10.1556/amicr.61.2014.3.1 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
“GH stimulated the proliferation of immune cells, primarily T-lymphocytes [84–86].”
BackgroundThe tumour microenvironment of pituitary neuroendocrine tumours
Marques, P., Grossman, A. B., & Korbonits, M. (2020) · Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.yfrne.2020.100852 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Savino, W. (2007) · Experimental Physiology · doi:10.1113/expphysiol.2007.038422 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
“Other functions of GH in the thymus are described in reviews published in the last few years (Welniak et al. 2002; Savino et al. 2002b, 2003).”
BackgroundThymopoiesis following allogeneic stem cell transplantation: new possibilities for improvement
Wils, E., & Cornelissen, J. J. (2004) · Blood Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.blre.2004.04.001 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Reversal of age-associated thymic atrophy: Treatments, delivery, and side effects
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Tissue regeneration: Impact of sleep on stem cell regenerative capacity
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Influence of Growth Hormone and Glutamine on Intestinal Stem Cells: A Narrative Review
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“Further studies are needed to determine if improvement in immune function is the result of direct interaction of GH or IGF-I with T-cells (mediated through GHRH) or the result of indirect effects resulting from an interaction with monocytes and antigen-presenting cells [29].”
BackgroundBrugman, M. H., Wiekmeijer, A., van Eggermond, M. C. J. A., Wolvers-Tettero, I. L. M., Langerak, A. W., de Haas, E. F. E., Bystrykh, L. V., van Rood, J. J., de Haan, G., Fibbe, W. E., et al. (2015) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1519118112 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
“Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 107(29):13022–13027.”
BackgroundDu, L., Ho, B. M., Zhou, L., Yip, Y. W. Y., He, J. N., Wei, Y., Tham, C. C. Y., Chan, S. O., Schally, A. V., Pang, C. P., et al. (2023) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-023-39023-1 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
WNT Signaling Suppression in the Senescent Human Thymus
Ferrando‐Martínez, S., Ruíz-Mateos, E., Dudakov, J. A., Velardi, E., Grillari, J., Kreil, D. P., Muñoz‐Fernández, M. Á., van den Brink, M. R. M., & Leal, M. (2014) · The Journals of Gerontology Series A · doi:10.1093/gerona/glu030 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“Several underlying causes that can affect on age-related thymic involution have been identified, including (i) growth hormone receptor expression by TECs and the production of its cognate ligand (5,6); (ii) increased production of sex steroids (2) along with androgen blockade reported to enhance thymus function in bot…”
BackgroundChuang, H., Chen, M., Chen, Y., Ciou, Y., Hsueh, C., Tsai, C., & Tan, T. (2021) · Arthritis & Rheumatology · doi:10.1002/art.41920 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
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“GH receptor (GHR) is expressed by various leukocyte subsets (7), including B and T cells (8) and macrophages (9) and GH has been shown to mediate thymic development (8), promote T cell engraftment in SCID mice (10), improve B cell responses and Ab production (11, 12), and modulate the activity of NK cells (13) and mac…”
BackgroundAtanackovic, D., Pollok, K., Faltz, C., Boeters, I., Jung, R., Nierhaus, A., Braumann, K.-M., HOSSFELD, D. K., & Hegewisch‐Becker, S. (2005) · American Journal of Physiology-Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology · doi:10.1152/ajpregu.00014.2005 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
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Recent advances in allogeneic hematopoietic stem-cell transplantation
Devine, S. M., Adkins, D. R., Khoury, H. J., Brown, R. A., Vij, R., Blum, W. G., & DiPersio, J. F. (2003) · Journal of Laboratory and Clinical Medicine · doi:10.1067/mlc.2003.5 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Kermani, H., Goffinet, L., Mottet, M., Bodart, G., Morrhaye, G., Dardenne, O., Renard, C., Overbergh, L., Baron, F., Beguin, Y., et al. (2012) · Neuroimmunomodulation · doi:10.1159/000328844 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
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“Moreover, rhGH has also been shown to stimulate peripheral lymphocytes to divide [23,37].”
BackgroundSOCS up-regulation mobilizes autologous stem cells through CXCR4 blockade
Pello, Ó. M., Moreno-Ortíz, M. D. C., Rodrı́guez-Frade, J. M., Martínez‐Muñoz, L., Lucas, D., Gómez, L., Lucas, P., Samper, E., Aracil, M., Martínez‐A, C., et al. (2006) · Blood · doi:10.1182/blood-2006-02-006353 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Alt, J. A., Obál, F., Traynor, T. R., Gardi, J., Majde, J. A., & Krueger, J. M. (2003) · Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.01190.2002 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“GH and IGF-1 play a role in lymphocyte development and function (52), and cytotoxic T lymphocytes are major immune contributors to both influenza recovery and pathogenesis.”
BackgroundIs Central Nervous System an Immune-Privileged Site?
Shrestha, R., Millington, O. R., Brewer, J. M., & Bushell, T. J. (2014) · Kathmandu University Medical Journal · doi:10.3126/kumj.v11i1.11055 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
AF4 Is a Critical Regulator of the IGF-1 Signaling Pathway during Purkinje Cell Development
Bitoun, E., Finelli, M. J., Oliver, P. L., Lee, S., & Davies, K. E. (2009) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.5188-09.2009 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“IGF-1 plays important regulatory roles in the early stages of both B- and T-cell development (Landreth et al., 1992; Welniak et al., 2002) as well as lens development (Walker et al., 2002; Ebong et al., 2004).”
BackgroundLuna-Acosta, J. L., Betancourt, C. A., Martínez-Moreno, C. G., Ramírez-Martínez, C. E., Carranza, M., Luna, M., & Arámburo, C. (2015) · General and Comparative Endocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.ygcen.2015.07.010 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Jenq, R. R., King, C. G., Volk, C., Suh, D. Y., Smith, O. M., Rao, U. K., Yim, N. L., Holland, A. M., Lu, S. X., Zakrzewski, J. L., et al. (2008) · Blood · doi:10.1182/blood-2008-05-155697 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Herasimtschuk, A., Westrop, S. J., Moyle, G. J., Downey, J. S., & Imami, N. (2008) · Journal of Immune Based Therapies and Vaccines · doi:10.1186/1476-8518-6-7 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Ontogenetic onset of immune-relevant genes in the common sole ( Solea solea )
Ferraresso, S., Bonaldo, A., Parma, L., Buonocore, F., Scapigliati, G., Gatta, P. P., & Bargelloni, L. (2016) · Fish & Shellfish Immunology · doi:10.1016/j.fsi.2016.08.044 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“757 In teleost fish numerous studies already revealed an important immunomodulatory role of GH/IGFI 758 axis (Welniak et al. 2002, Yada 2007, Franz et al. 2016), in particular during thymus and thymocytes 759 development, through both endocrine and paracrine mechanism.”
BackgroundProtective and Healing Effects of Ghrelin and Risk of Cancer in the Digestive System
Ginter, G., Ceranowicz, P., & Warzecha, Z. (2021) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms221910571 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Psychoneuroendocrine interventions aimed at attenuating immunosenescence: a review
Bauer, M. E., Müller, G. C., Correa, B. L., Vianna, P., Turner, J. E., & Bosch, J. A. (2013) · Biogerontology · doi:10.1007/s10522-012-9412-5 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
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Yang, H., Dixit, V. D., Patel, K. G., Vandanmagsar, B., Collins, G. D., Sun, Y., Smith, R. G., & Taub, D. D. (2008) · Brain Behavior and Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2008.06.003 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“Moreover, thymic atrophy has been associated with the ablation of the pituitary gland and in mice with Pit-1 defects (Taub, 2007; Welniak et al., 2002).”
Proteomic Profiling of Growth Hormone-Responsive Proteins in Human Peripheral Blood Leukocytes
Chung, L., Nelson, A. E., Ho, K. K. Y., & Baxter, R. C. (2009) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2009-0778 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Saitoh, A., Singh, K. K., Sandall, S. L., Powell, C. A., Fenton, T., Fletcher, C. V., Hsia, K.-T., & Spector, S. A. (2006) · Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology · doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2006.01.013 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Kawa, M. P., Stecewicz, I., Piecyk, K., Pius‐Sadowska, E., Paczkowska, E., Rogińska, D., Sobuś, A., Łuczkowska, K., Gawrych, E., Petriczko, E., et al. (2015) · Endocrine · doi:10.1007/s12020-015-0591-0 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“GH was shown to augment in vitro erythropoiesis [7], granulopoiesis [8], and lymphopoiesis [9].”
BackgroundMendes‐da‐Cruz, D. A., Lemos, J. P., Passos, G. A. S., & Savino, W. (2018) · Frontiers in Endocrinology · doi:10.3389/fendo.2018.00381 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“It is produced and stored mainly in the anterior pituitary under control of hypothalamic hormones, as the GH-releasing hormone, hypothalamic GH release-inhibiting factor and somatostatin (50), although the production by other cell types was observed, including leukocytes and TECs (51).”
BackgroundElevated Proportions of Recent Thymic Emigrants in Children and Adolescents with Type 1 Diabetes
Hofer, J., Hofer, S. E., Zlamy, M., Jeller, V., Koppelstaetter, C., Kloss‐Brandstätter, A., Kern, H., Köhle, J., Zimmerhackl, L. B., & Prelog, M. (2009) · Rejuvenation Research · doi:10.1089/rej.2009.0863 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“19,21,23 All members of the insulin gene family and their receptors are expressed in the thymus and play a role in thymus function and T cell homeostasis.”
Zakrzewski, J. L., Goldberg, G. L., Smith, O. M., & van den Brink, M. R. M. (2007) · Blood Cells Molecules and Diseases · doi:10.1016/j.bcmd.2007.07.015 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“Receptors for both GH and IGF-1 are found on all hematopoietic cells in the bone marrow and on B and T cell subsets in secondary lymphoid tissues [11].”
Herasimtschuk, A., Hansen, B. R., Langkilde, A., Moyle, G. J., Andersen, O., & Imami, N. (2013) · Clinical & Experimental Immunology · doi:10.1111/cei.12141 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Villares, R., Criado, G., Juarranz, Y., López‐Santalla, M., García‐Cuesta, E. M., Rodrı́guez-Frade, J. M., Leceta, J., Lucas, P., Pablos, J. L., Martínez‐A, C., et al. (2018) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2018.01165 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“GH mediates thymic development (7), promotes”
Decker, D., Springer, W., Tolba, R. H., Lauschke, H., Hirner, A., & von Ruecker, A. (2005) · Growth Hormone & IGF Research · doi:10.1016/j.ghir.2005.02.006 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“This effect can be explained by the fact that granulopoiesis is enhanced by hGH or IGF-I [9].”
BackgroundGreenstein, J., Guest, S. S., Tan, J. C., Tummala, P., Busque, S., & Rabkin, R. (2006) · Journal of Renal Nutrition · doi:10.1053/j.jrn.2006.01.007 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
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Growth hormone treatment in patients with ataxia telangiectasia
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“GH plays an important role in T-cell development and function, whereas data on its effects on the peripheral T cells are inconsistent (Esposito et al., 2016; Napolitano et al., 2002; Welniak et al., 2002).”
BackgroundPalacios, B. S., Villares, R., Lucas, P., Rodrı́guez-Frade, J. M., Cayuela, A., Piccirillo, J., Lombardía, M., Gestoso, D. D., Fernández-García, M., Risco, C., et al. (2023) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2023.1200259 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“, 2000; Velloso, 2008) including regulation of the immune system (Kimata & Fujimoto, 1994; Lu et al., 2010; W. J. Murphy et al., 1992; Welniak et al., 2002).”
BackgroundLeposavić, G., Pilipović, I., & Nanut, M. P. (2011) · NeuroImmunoModulation · doi:10.1159/000329499 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
The functional relationship between hematopoietic stem cells and developing T lymphocytes
Staal, F. J. T., Wiekmeijer, A., Brugman, M. H., & Pike‐Overzet, K. (2016) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/nyas.12995 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Estimation of Individual Glucose Reserves in High-Yielding Dairy Cows
Habel, J., Chapoutot, P., Koch, C., & Sundrum, A. (2022) · Dairy · doi:10.3390/dairy3030033 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
T cell function in the aged: Lessons learned from animal models
Linton, P., Lustgarten, J., & Thoman, M. L. (2006) · Clinical and Applied Immunology Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.cair.2006.06.001 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Crosstalk between Insulin-like Growth Factors and Pro-inflammatory Cytokines
McCusker, R. H., Strle, K., Broussard, S. R., Dantzer, R., Bluthé, R.-M., & Kelley, K. W. (2007) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-012088576-3/50011-3 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Effects of Growth Hormone on In Situ Culture of Bovine Preantral Follicles are Dose Dependent
Jimenez, C. R., de Azevedo, J., Silveira, R., Penitente‐Filho, J. M., Triana, E. L. C., Zolini, A. M., Araújo, V., & Torres, C. (2016) · Reproduction in Domestic Animals · doi:10.1111/rda.12722 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Thymus repopulation after allogeneic reconstitution in hematological malignancies
Zöller, M., Rajasagi, M., Vitacolonna, M., & Luft, T. (2007) · Experimental Hematology · doi:10.1016/j.exphem.2007.08.005 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Expression of human growth hormone gene in Pleurotus eryngii
Kim, S., Sapkota, K., Choi, B.-S., & Kim, S.-J. (2010) · Open Life Sciences · doi:10.2478/s11535-010-0071-8 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“Recombinant human growth hormone (rhGH) is anabolic and enhances immune functions [3-6].”
BackgroundThymic function and allogeneic T-cell responses in stem-cell transplantation
Komanduri, K. V. (2002) · Cytotherapy · doi:10.1080/146532402760271118 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Immunotherapy of Immunosenesence; Who, How and When?
Govind, S. (2012) · Open Longevity Science · doi:10.2174/1876326x01206010056 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“Along with GH and IGF-1, the peptide hormone ghrelin, principally known to induce GH by binding through the growth hormone secretagogue receptor (GHSR), has been reported to enhance thymopoiesis in aged mice [36].”
BackgroundInfluentialBatista, C. R., Figueiredo, M. A., Almeida, D. V., Romano, L. A., & Marins, L. F. (2015) · Fish & Shellfish Immunology · doi:10.1016/j.fsi.2015.05.034 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Grenda, R. (2021) · Pediatric Nephrology · doi:10.1007/s00467-021-05223-4 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Sirtuins and the prevention of immunosenescence
Lasigliè, D. (2021) · Vitamins and hormones · doi:10.1016/bs.vh.2020.12.011 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Kumar, P., & Menon, R. K. (2013) · OA Biochemistry · doi:10.13172/2052-9651-1-2-1122 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Porto, G., Cruz, E., Miranda, H., Porto, B., Vasconcelos, J. C., Lacerda, R., Roetto, A., Daraio, F., & Bacelar, C. (2004) · Clinical Endocrinology · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2265.2004.02069.x · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“TS is a medical condition with indication for treatment with growth hormone (GH), a therapeutic agent implicated in immunoregulatory functions (reviewed in Welniak et al ., 2002).”
BackgroundVinnik, Y. S., Александровна, П. Р., Kochetova, L. V., & Козлов, В. В. (2018) · Novosti hirurgii · doi:10.18484/2305-0047.2018.1.42 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
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Somatotropic gene response to recombinant growth hormone treatment in buffalo leucocytes
Castigliego, L., Li, X., Armani, A., Razzano, M., Mazzi, M., Rosati, R., Gianfaldoni, D., & Гуиди, А. (2011) · Biological Chemistry · doi:10.1515/bc.2011.187 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“Substantial evidence in humans show that GH is an important modulator of the immune system (Jeay et al. , 2002 ; Welniak et al. , 2002 ).”
BackgroundOHTSUKA, H., KISHIKI, F., Takaaki, A. N. D. O., Mukai, M., Kohiruimaki, M., & TANAMI, E. (2011) · Journal of the Japan Veterinary Medical Association · doi:10.12935/jvma.64.294 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Biological and Phenotypic Alterations of T Cells in Aging
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The Growth Hormone/Insulin-like Growth Factor-I Axis and the Immune System
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The Growth Hormone/Insulin-like Growth Factor-I Axis and the Immune System
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Thy(–im)munosenescence: The Ageing of the Thymus and Its Impact on the Immune System
Köhler, S. (2011) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-0346-0219-8_3 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Growth hormone (GH) treatment in old rats can increase thymic function [118], maybe due to enhanced interleukin 7 secretion [119], and lead to enhanced thymopoiesis and increased naı̈ve T-cell numbers in HIV patients [17].”
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Somatotropic gene response to recombinant somatotropin treatment in buffalo leukocytes
Castigliego, L., Li, X., Armani, A., Razzano, M., Mazzi, M., Rosati, R., Gianfaldoni, D., & Гуиди, А. (2011) · Biological Chemistry · doi:10.1515/bc-2011-187
Senescence of Adaptive Immunity: Key Points for the General Physician
Lee, F. J., & Katelaris, C. H. (2010) · Aging Health · doi:10.2217/ahe.10.33
“Other hormones demonstrated to have a stimulatory effect on the thymus glands of old mice include anabolic peptides, such as growth hormone and ghrelin, a growth hormonereleasing factor that also has anti-inflammatory properties [75].”
BackgroundChenchen, P., Wang, L., Chen, Z., Ma, L., Wei, Y., & Long, Z. (2011) · Animal Biotechnology · doi:10.1080/10495398.2011.630437
Remmel, A. (2005) · Der Onkologe · doi:10.1007/s00761-005-0998-y
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“Human studies have shown that ST plays an important role as immune system modulator [22, 23].”
BackgroundMechanisms Underlying Immunomodulation of HIV-1-Specific T-cell Responses
Herasimtschuk, A. (2012) · Spiral (Imperial College London) · doi:10.25560/10565
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Prevention and reversal of thymus involution mediated by the transcription factor Foxn1
Bredenkamp, N. (2011) · ERA
- Authors
- Welniak, L. A., Sun, R., & Murphy, W. J.
- Affiliations
- Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research (US)
- Corresponding author
- Murphy, William J
- Venue
- Journal of Leukocyte Biology
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2002-03-01
- Volume
- 71
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 381-387
- ISSN
- 0741-5400 (ISSN-L)
- 1938-3673
- OpenAlex
- W2336850667
- Cited by
- 96
- References
- 92
- Citations by year
- 2023: 2 · 2022: 1 · 2021: 5 · 2020: 4 · 2019: 1 · 2018: 4 · 2017: 2 · 2016: 5 · 2015: 5 · 2014: 3 · 2013: 6 · 2012: 4
- FWCI
- 3.23
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Leukocyte Biology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Cancer Institute
- National Institutes of Health (NO1-CO-12400)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism › Growth Hormone and Insulin-like Growth Factors
- Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Immunology › T-cell and B-cell Immunology
- Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Immunology › Immunodeficiency and Autoimmune Disorders
- Keywords
- growth hormone, insulin-like growth factor I, T cell development, T cell reconstitution, immune regulation, lymphocyte development, immune response
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Cell Differentiation, Humans, Receptors, Somatotropin, Growth Hormone, T-Lymphocytes, Thymus Gland, Human Growth Hormone, Rats
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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