The DOI matches its Crossref record; 100 of the 169 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Some Uses of Happiness Data in Economics
Open accessAbstract
Happiness research is based on the idea that it is fruitful to study empirical measures of individual welfare. The most common is the answer to a simple well-being question such as “Are you Happy?” Hundreds of thousands of individuals have been asked this question, in many countries and over many years. Researchers have begun to use these data to tackle a variety of important questions in economics. Some require strong assumptions concerning interpersonal comparisons of utility, but others make only mild assumptions in this regard. They range from microeconomic questions, such as the way income and utility are connected, to macroeconomic questions such as the tradeoff between inflation and unemployment, including large areas in political economy. Public policy is another area where progress using happiness data is taking place. Given the central role of utility notions in economic theory, we argue that the use of happiness data in empirical research should be given serious consideration.
Overview
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“Life satisfaction is a self-reported welfare measure frequently used in economic and policy analysis (Di Tella and MacCulloch, 2006;Graham and MacLennan, 2020;MacKerron, 2012;Nikolova and Graham, 2022;Otrachshenko et al., 2022).”
From Double-edged sword: persistent effects of Communist regime affiliations on well-being and preferences (2023) · cites this paper as Di Tella and MacCulloch, 2006
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Citations
Cites
1 retracted
RETRACTED: Does globalization and ecological footprint in OECD lead to national happiness
Wang, Y., Arshed, N., Shabeer, M. G., Munir, M., Rehman, H. U., & Khan, Y. A. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0288630 · Cited by 16
RetractedSubjective well-being: Three decades of progress.
Diener, E., Suh, E. M., Lucas, R. E., & Smith, H. L. (1999) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.125.2.276 · Cited by 12,910
Duflo, E. (2019) · AEA Papers and Proceedings · doi:10.1257/pandp.109.612 · Cited by 11,235
Journal of Economic Literature
Durlauf, S. N. (2019) · AEA Papers and Proceedings · doi:10.1257/pandp.109.633 · Cited by 7,666
The Quarterly Journal of Economics
Kuznets, S. (2024) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781003549741-8 · Cited by 7,177
Golden eggs and hyperbolic discounting
Laibson, D. (1997) · The Quarterly Journal of Economics · doi:10.1162/003355397555253 · Cited by 6,122
Does Economic Growth Improve the Human Lot? Some Empirical Evidence
EASTERLIN, R. A. (1974) · Nations and Households in Economic Growth · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-205050-3.50008-7 · Cited by 4,474
Suicide: A study in sociology.
Durkheim, É. (2004) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/10406-003 · Cited by 3,944
A Theory of Rational Addiction
Becker, G. S., & Murphy, K. (1988) · Journal of Political Economy · doi:10.1086/261558 · Cited by 3,906
What Can Economists Learn from Happiness Research?
Frey, B. S., & Stutzer, A. (2002) · Journal of Economic Literature · doi:10.1257/002205102320161320 · Cited by 3,783
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 101–200 of 883
Does the Internet Use Improve the Mental Health of Chinese Older Adults?
Xie, L., Yang, H., Lin, X., Ti, S.-M., Wu, Y., Zhang, S., Zhang, S., & Zhou, W. (2021) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2021.673368 · Cited by 92
Subjective well-being and relative poverty in rural Bangladesh
Asadullah, M. N., & Chaudhury, N. (2012) · Journal of Economic Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.joep.2012.05.003 · Cited by 85
The drivers of happiness inequality: suggestions for promoting social cohesion
Becchetti, L., Massari, R., & Naticchioni, P. (2013) · Oxford Economic Papers · doi:10.1093/oep/gpt016 · Cited by 85
Understanding fixed effects in human well-being
Boyce, C. J. (2009) · Journal of Economic Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.joep.2009.08.009 · Cited by 84
The Chernobyl Disaster, Concern About the Environment, and Life Satisfaction
Berger, E. (2010) · Kyklos · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6435.2010.00457.x · Cited by 101
Reason, Religion, and Democracy
Mueller, D. C. (2009) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511814266 · Cited by 83
Happiness and International Migration
Polgreen, L. A., & Simpson, N. B. (2010) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-010-9229-3 · Cited by 88
Ng, Y. (2007) · Social Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s11205-007-9135-1 · Cited by 82
A statistical meta-analysis of the wellbeing literature
Eger, R. J., & Maridal, J. H. (2015) · International Journal of Wellbeing · doi:10.5502/ijw.v5i2.4 · Cited by 83
Happy Hosts? International Tourist Arrivals and Residents’ Subjective Well-being in Europe
Ivļevs, A. (2016) · Journal of Travel Research · doi:10.1177/0047287516662353 · Cited by 81
Happiness and Domain Satisfaction: Theory and EvidencePreprint
Easterlin, R. A., & Sawangfa, O. (2007) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.961644 · Cited by 83
Happiness Studies: Ways to Improve Comparability and Some Public Policy Implications*
Ng, Y. (2008) · Economic Record · doi:10.1111/j.1475-4932.2008.00466.x · Cited by 85
Sarracino, F. (2012) · The Journal of Socio-Economics · doi:10.1016/j.socec.2012.11.006 · Cited by 84
Job loss and depression: The role of subjective expectations
Mandal, B., Ayyagari, P., & Gallo, W. T. (2010) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2010.11.014 · Cited by 78
Economic Consequences of Mispredicting Utility
Frey, B. S., & Stutzer, A. (2013) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-013-9457-4 · Cited by 217
Well-being and volunteering: Evidence from aging societies in Asia
Huang, L. (2018) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2018.09.004 · Cited by 77
Unhappy metropolis (when American city is too big)
Okulicz‐Kozaryn, A. (2016) · Cities · doi:10.1016/j.cities.2016.04.011 · Cited by 79
Going Deeper into the S of ESG: A Relational Approach to the Definition of Social Responsibility
Becchetti, L., Bobbio, E., Prizia, F., & Semplici, L. (2022) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su14159668 · Cited by 121
Population aging and environmental preferences in OECD countries: The case of air pollution
Menz, T., & Welsch, H. (2010) · Ecological Economics · doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2010.08.002 · Cited by 82
Money and Happiness: Evidence from the Industry Wage Structure
Pischke, J. (2011) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w17056 · Cited by 75
Time Allocation and Women’s Life Satisfaction: Evidence from Spain
Álvarez, B., & Miles‐Touya, D. (2015) · Social Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s11205-015-1159-3 · Cited by 75
Intergenerational mobility and subjective well-being—Evidence from the general social survey
Nikolaev, B., & Burns, A. (2014) · Journal of Behavioral and Experimental Economics · doi:10.1016/j.socec.2014.08.005 · Cited by 80
Minding the happiness gap: Political institutions and perceived quality of life in transition
Nikolova, M. (2016) · European Journal of Political Economy · doi:10.1016/j.ejpoleco.2016.07.008 · Cited by 75
Recent Developments in the Economics of Happiness: A Selective OverviewPreprint
Stutzer, A., & Frey, B. S. (2012) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2192854 · Cited by 78
Bookwalter, J. T., & Dalenberg, D. R. (2009) · World Development · doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2009.07.001 · Cited by 74
Happy Moves? Assessing the Link between Life Satisfaction and Emigration Intentions
Ivļevs, A. (2015) · Kyklos · doi:10.1111/kykl.12086 · Cited by 74
In transit: The well-being of migrants from transition and post-transition countries
Nikolova, M., & Graham, C. L. (2015) · Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization · doi:10.1016/j.jebo.2015.02.003 · Cited by 83
The subjective well-being political paradox: Happy welfare states and unhappy liberals.
Okulicz‐Kozaryn, A., Holmes, O., & Avery, D. R. (2014) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0037654 · Cited by 79
Frame-of-reference bias in subjective welfare
Beegle, K., Himelein, K., & Ravallion, M. D. (2011) · Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization · doi:10.1016/j.jebo.2011.07.020 · Cited by 73
Happiness and relational goods: well-being and interpersonal relations in the economic sphere
Gui, B., & Stanca, L. M. (2010) · International Review of Economics · doi:10.1007/s12232-010-0099-0 · Cited by 73
Do organic farmers feel happier than conventional ones? An exploratory analysis
Mzoughi, N. (2014) · Ecological Economics · doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2014.04.015 · Cited by 79
Economic Freedom and Quality of Life: Evidence from the OECD’s Your Better Life IndexPreprint
Nikolaev, B. (2014) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.5270703 · Cited by 72
Hirschauer, N., Lehberger, M., & Mußhoff, O. (2014) · Social Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s11205-014-0654-2 · Cited by 76
DISCOUNTING FOR PUBLIC POLICY: A SURVEY
Greaves, H. (2017) · Economics and Philosophy · doi:10.1017/s0266267117000062 · Cited by 41
Growing Up in a Recession: Beliefs and the MacroeconomyPreprint
Giuliano, P., & Spilimbergo, A. (2009) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.1455527 · Cited by 70
Democracy, Participation, and Life Satisfaction*
Owen, A. L., Videras, J., & Willemsen, C. (2008) · Social Science Quarterly · doi:10.1111/j.1540-6237.2008.00595.x · Cited by 69
Maternal Life Satisfaction and Child Outcomes: Are They Related?
Berger, E., & Spieß, C. K. (2010) · Journal of Economic Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.joep.2010.10.001 · Cited by 69
de Hoop, T., van Kempen, L., Linssen, R., & van Eerdewijk, A. (2014) · Feminist Economics · doi:10.1080/13545701.2014.893388 · Cited by 68
Welsch, H., & Kühling, J. (2011) · Ecological Economics · doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2011.04.015 · Cited by 68
Spruk, R., & Kešeljević, A. (2015) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-015-9616-x · Cited by 69
Exploring Determinants of Subjective Wellbeing in OECD Countries
Flèche, S., Smith, C., & Sorsa, P. (2012) · OECD statistics working papers · doi:10.1787/5k9ffc6p1rvb-en · Cited by 72
Does Childhood Predict Adult Life Satisfaction? Evidence from British Cohort Surveys
Frijters, P., Johnston, D. W., & Shields, M. A. (2013) · The Economic Journal · doi:10.1111/ecoj.12085 · Cited by 90
Happy Working Mothers? Investigating the Effect of Maternal Employment on Life Satisfaction
Berger, E. (2012) · Economica · doi:10.1111/j.1468-0335.2012.00932.x · Cited by 67
Floods and Happiness: Empirical Evidence from Bulgaria.
Sekulova, F., & van den Bergh, J. (2016) · Ecological Economics · doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2016.02.014 · Cited by 69
Limited Self-control, Obesity, and the Loss of Happiness
Stutzer, A., & Meier, A. N. (2015) · Health Economics · doi:10.1002/hec.3227 · Cited by 66
van Hoorn, A., & Maseland, R. (2010) · Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization · doi:10.1016/j.jebo.2010.10.003 · Cited by 66
van Praag, B. M. S., & Ada Ferrer-i-carbonell, A. (2007) · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199226146.001.0001 · Cited by 69
Estimating Missing Values from the General Social Survey: An Application of Multiple Imputation*
Penn, D. A. (2007) · Social Science Quarterly · doi:10.1111/j.1540-6237.2007.00472.x · Cited by 65
Can a carbon permit system reduce Spanish unemployment?
Fæhn, T., Gómez-Plana, A. G., & Kverndokk, S. (2009) · Energy Economics · doi:10.1016/j.eneco.2009.01.003 · Cited by 65
Does Migration Make You Happy? The Influence of Migration on Subjective Well-Being
Melzer, S. M. (2011) · DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) · Cited by 64
Surveying transitional experience and subjective well-being: Income, work, family
Selezneva, E. (2010) · Economic Systems · doi:10.1016/j.ecosys.2010.05.002 · Cited by 62
Lost in Transition: Life Satisfaction on the Road to CapitalismPreprint
Easterlin, R. A. (2008) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.1118263 · Cited by 63
A closer look at the Easterlin Paradox
Angeles, L. (2010) · The Journal of Socio-Economics · doi:10.1016/j.socec.2010.06.017 · Cited by 67
All in the Family: Mental Health Spillover Effects between Working Spouses
Fletcher, J. M. (2008) · The B E Journal of Economic Analysis & Policy · doi:10.2202/1935-1682.1967 · Cited by 62
Political Participation and Quality of Life
Weitz-Shapiro, R. B., & Winters, M. S. (2008) · doi:10.18235/0010892 · Cited by 63
Adapting to Adversity: Happiness and the 2009 Economic Crisis in the United States
Graham, C. L., Chattopadhyay, S., & Picón, M. (2010) · Social research · doi:10.1353/sor.2010.0061 · Cited by 61
Investigating Macroeconomic Determinants of Happiness in Transition Countries
Perović, L. M., & Golem, S. (2010) · Eastern European Economics · doi:10.2753/eee0012-8775480403 · Cited by 61
The Determinants of Happiness in Turkey: Evidence from City-Level Data
Eren, K. A., & Aşıcı, A. A. (2016) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-016-9746-9 · Cited by 61
Is Unemployment More Costly Than Inflation?
Blanchflower, D. G. (2007) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w13505 · Cited by 62
Luechinger, S., Meier, S., & Stutzer, A. (2008) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.1114939 · Cited by 60
Quality of Life and Compact Development Policies in Bandung, Indonesia
Arifwidodo, S. D., & Perera, R. (2010) · Applied Research in Quality of Life · doi:10.1007/s11482-010-9123-5 · Cited by 59
Asadullah, M. N., & Chaudhury, N. (2011) · Economics of Education Review · doi:10.1016/j.econedurev.2011.05.001 · Cited by 59
Fang, Z., & Sakellariou, C. N. (2015) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-015-9663-3 · Cited by 59
Marriage, adaptation and happiness: Are there long-lasting gains to marriage?
Qari, S. (2014) · Journal of Behavioral and Experimental Economics · doi:10.1016/j.socec.2014.01.003 · Cited by 57
Values and marginal preferences in international business
Maseland, R., & van Hoorn, A. (2010) · Journal of International Business Studies · doi:10.1057/jibs.2010.24 · Cited by 58
Can Subjective Questions on Economic Welfare Be Trusted?
Ravallion, M. D., Himelein, K., & Beegle, K. (2016) · Economic Development and Cultural Change · doi:10.1086/686793 · Cited by 57
Is Subjective Well-Being of Concern to Potential Migrants from Latin America?
Chindarkar, N. (2012) · Social Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s11205-012-0213-7 · Cited by 58
14 Work, Jobs, and Well-Being Across the Millennium
Clark, A. E. (2010) · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199732739.003.0014 · Cited by 57
The Link Between Voting and Life Satisfaction in Latin America
Weitz-Shapiro, R., & Winters, M. S. (2011) · Latin American Politics and Society · doi:10.1111/j.1548-2456.2011.00135.x · Cited by 56
Should National Happiness be Maximized?
Frey, B. S., & Stutzer, A. (2009) · Edward Elgar Publishing eBooks · doi:10.4337/9781849801973.00023 · Cited by 56
Moving beyond a Snapshot to Understand Changes in the Well‐Being of Native Amazonians
Godoy, R., Reyes‐García, V., Gravlee, C. C., Huanca, T., Leonard, W. R., McDade, T. W., Tanner, S. N., & TAPS Bolivia Study Team (2009) · Current Anthropology · doi:10.1086/599983 · Cited by 56
Smith, V. K. (2008) · Review of Environmental Economics and Policy · doi:10.1093/reep/ren006 · Cited by 57
Will GDP Growth Increase Happiness in Developing Countries?Preprint
Clark, A. E., & Sénik, C. (2011) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.1796590 · Cited by 56
Would energy poverty affect the wellbeing of senior citizens? Evidence from China
Li, Y., Xiao, N., Wang, Z., Cheng, J., Li, F., & Hao, Y. (2022) · Ecological Economics · doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2022.107515 · Cited by 55
Does Terrorism Demoralize? Evidence from Israel
Romanov, D., Zussman, A., & Zussman, N. (2010) · Economica · doi:10.1111/j.1468-0335.2010.00868.x · Cited by 55
Vendrik, M. (2013) · Journal of Public Economics · doi:10.1016/j.jpubeco.2013.06.009 · Cited by 61
The effects of international migration on the well-being of native populations in Europe
Betz, W., & Simpson, N. B. (2013) · IZA Journal of Migration · doi:10.1186/2193-9039-2-12 · Cited by 55
Happiness, Domains of Life Satisfaction, Perceptions, and Valuation Differences Across Genders
Milovanska-Farrington, S., & Farrington, S. (2021) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2022.103720 · Cited by 71
Abdullah, S., Murnane, E. L., Costa, J. M. D. R., & Choudhury, T. (2015) · ACM Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work (CSCW) · doi:10.1145/2675133.2675186 · Cited by 53
Gonza, G., & Burger, A. (2016) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-016-9797-y · Cited by 55
Transforming Lives: The Impact of Compulsory Schooling on Hope and Happiness
Dursun, B., & Cesur, R. (2016) · Journal of Population Economics · doi:10.1007/s00148-016-0592-1 · Cited by 51
Measuring and modeling activity and travel well-being
Zeid, A. (2009) · DSpace@MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) · Cited by 54
Inequality OF subjective well-being as a comprehensive measure OF inequality
Goff, L., Helliwell, J. F., & Mayraz, G. (2018) · Economic Inquiry · doi:10.1111/ecin.12582 · Cited by 51
The Impact of Terrorism on Individual Well-Being: Evidence from the Boston Marathon Bombing
Clark, A. E., Doyle, O., & Stancanelli, E. (2020) · The Economic Journal · doi:10.1093/ej/ueaa053 · Cited by 49
Can religion insure against aggregate shocks to happiness? The case of transition countries
Popova, O. I. (2014) · Journal of Comparative Economics · doi:10.1016/j.jce.2014.05.003 · Cited by 51
The Persistence of Subjective Poverty in Urban Ethiopia
Alem, Y., Köhlin, G., & Stage, J. (2013) · World Development · doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2013.10.017 · Cited by 51
Do the arts make you happy? A quantile regression approach
Hand, C. (2017) · Journal of Cultural Economics · doi:10.1007/s10824-017-9302-4 · Cited by 51
Life satisfaction and unemployment in Turkey: evidence from Life Satisfaction Surveys 2004–2013
Susanlı, Z. B. (2017) · Quality & Quantity · doi:10.1007/s11135-017-0479-6 · Cited by 50
Xiao, J. J. (2015) · International series on consumer science · doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-2821-7 · Cited by 48
Atkinson, G., Dietz, S., Helgeson, J., Hepburn, C., & Sælen, H. (2009) · Economics · doi:10.5018/economics-ejournal.ja.2009-26 · Cited by 110
Money, Sociability and Happiness: Are Developed Countries Doomed to Social Erosion and Unhappiness?
Sarracino, F. (2011) · Social Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s11205-011-9898-2 · Cited by 48
Tubadji, A., Osoba, B. J., & Nijkamp, P. J. (2014) · Journal of Cultural Economics · doi:10.1007/s10824-014-9232-3 · Cited by 48
Well-being and economic freedom: Evidence from the States
Belasen, A. R., & Hafer, R. W. (2012) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2012.03.002 · Cited by 47
How to increase well-being in a context of degrowth
Andreoni, V., & Galmarini, S. (2013) · Futures · doi:10.1016/j.futures.2013.10.021 · Cited by 47
Determinants of Life Satisfaction in Asia: A Quantile Regression Approach
Ngoo, Y. T., Tan, E. C., & Tey, N. P. (2020) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-020-00257-1 · Cited by 46
National Pride: War Minus the Shooting
Kavetsos, G. (2011) · Social Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s11205-011-9801-1 · Cited by 46
What are we learning from the life satisfaction literature?
Becchetti, L., & Pelloni, A. (2013) · International Review of Economics · doi:10.1007/s12232-013-0177-1 · Cited by 51
Happiness and altruism within the extended family
Schwarze, J., & Winkelmann, R. (2010) · Journal of Population Economics · doi:10.1007/s00148-010-0326-8 · Cited by 45
Work schedule flexibility: A contributor to happiness?
Golden, L. M., Henly, J. R., & Lambert, S. J. (2013) · Journal of Social Research & Policy · Cited by 43
Happiness—Concept, Measurement and Promotion
Ng, Y. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-33-4972-8 · Cited by 53
Metadata
- Authors
- Tella, R. D., & MacCulloch, R.
- Affiliations
- Harvard University (US)
- Imperial College London (GB)
- ORCID
- MacCulloch, Robert
- Venue
- Journal of Economic Perspectives
- Publisher
- American Economic Association
- Published
- 2006-02-01
- Volume
- 20
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 25-46
- ISSN
- 0895-3309 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W1977288176
- Cited by
- 889
- References
- 101
- Citations by year
- 2026: 17 · 2025: 12 · 2024: 24 · 2023: 24 · 2022: 20 · 2021: 24 · 2020: 47 · 2019: 40 · 2018: 26 · 2017: 39 · 2016: 49 · 2015: 64 · 2014: 70 · 2013: 70 · 2012: 58
- FWCI
- 79.51
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- The Journal of Economic Perspectives (publishedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- ResearchSpace (University of Auckland) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Psychological Well-being and Life Satisfaction
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Quality of Life Measurement
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Income, Poverty, and Inequality
- Keywords
- subjective well-being, interpersonal utility comparison, Phillips curve, political economy, public policy evaluation, happiness surveys
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review