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Pit Latrines and Their Impacts on Groundwater Quality: A Systematic Review
Open accessAbstract
Background: Pit latrines are one of the most common human excreta disposal systems in low-income countries, and their use is on the rise as countries aim to meet the sanitation-related target of the Millennium Development Goals. There is concern, however, that discharges of chemical and microbial contaminants from pit latrines to groundwater may negatively affect human health. Objectives: Our goals were to a) calculate global pit latrine coverage, b) systematically review empirical studies of the impacts of pit latrines on groundwater quality, c) evaluate latrine siting standards, and d) identify knowledge gaps regarding the potential for and consequences of groundwater contamination by latrines. Methods: We used existing survey and population data to calculate global pit latrine coverage. We reviewed the scientific literature on the occurrence of contaminants originating from pit latrines and considered the factors affecting transport of these contaminants. Data were extracted from peer-reviewed articles, books, and reports identified using Web of ScienceSM, PubMed, Google, and document reference lists. Discussion: We estimated that approximately 1.77 billion people use pit latrines as their primary means of sanitation. Studies of pit latrines and groundwater are limited and have generally focused on only a few indicator contaminants. Although groundwater contamination is frequently observed downstream of latrines, contaminant transport distances, recommendations based on empirical studies, and siting guidelines are variable and not well aligned with one another. Conclusions: In order to improve environmental and human health, future research should examine a larger set of contextual variables, improve measurement approaches, and develop better criteria for siting pit latrines.
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“Some field studies suggest that pit latrines, which are the most typical type of sanitation infrastructure in urban informal settlements, may be less likely to contaminate underlying groundwater when they are lined, particularly in rainy conditions 105 .”
From Urban informal settlements as hotspots of antimicrobial resistance and the need to curb environmental transmission. (2020) · cites this paper as [105]
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“Of the 2.7 billion people using on-site sanitation worldwide [6], an estimated 1.77 billion use some form of pit latrine as their primary means of excreta disposal [12].”
From Are pit latrines in urban areas of Sub-Saharan Africa performing? A review of usage, filling, insects and odour nuisances (2015) · cites this paper as [12]
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RetractedSanitation Systems and Technology Options
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“Approximately 1.77 billion people globally, use pit latrines as a main source of sanitation (Graham and Polizzotto, 2013) and there is growing concern that the release of unsanitary chemicals and microbial contaminants from these pit latrines affects human health and can contaminate ground water…”
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“This salt build-up is largely the result of salt dissolution in weathered soils and leaching to the saturated groundwater zone (Foster et al., 2012; Graham and Polizzotto, 2013).”
BackgroundProperties, agronomic uses and public perceptions of faecal sludge biochar
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Metadata
- Authors
- Graham, J. P., & Polizzotto, M. L.
- Affiliations
- George Washington University (US)
- North Carolina State University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Graham, Jay P.
- Venue
- Environmental Health Perspectives
- Publisher
- American Chemical Society (ACS)
- Published
- 2013-03-22
- Volume
- 121
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 521-530
- ISSN
- 0091-6765 (ISSN-L)
- 1552-9924
- PMC
- PMC3673197
- OpenAlex
- W2084155931
- Cited by
- 431
- References
- 71
- Citations by year
- 2026: 41 · 2025: 20 · 2024: 36 · 2023: 44 · 2022: 37 · 2021: 49 · 2020: 42 · 2019: 34 · 2018: 35 · 2017: 44 · 2016: 20 · 2015: 15 · 2014: 11 · 2013: 3
- FWCI
- 1.60
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- public-domain
- creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ (vor, 1743 d)
- Locations
- Environmental Health Perspectives (publishedVersion, public-domain)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, public-domain)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, public-domain)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- eScholarship (California Digital Library) (acceptedVersion)
- eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion, public-domain)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Water Science and Technology › Fecal contamination and water quality
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Waste Management and Disposal › Wastewater Treatment and Reuse
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Water Science and Technology › Water Quality and Pollution Assessment
- Keywords
- pit latrines, groundwater contamination, sanitation, microbial contaminants, chemical contaminants, contaminant transport, latrine coverage, low-income countries
- MeSH terms
- Ammonia, Chlorides, Humans, Nitrates, Sanitation, Toilet Facilities, Water Microbiology, Water Pollutants, Chemical, Water Pollution, Groundwater
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