Cited by 431Fecal contamination and water qualityWastewater Treatment and ReuseWater Quality and Pollution Assessment

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Pit Latrines and Their Impacts on Groundwater Quality: A Systematic Review

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Graham, Jay P., Polizzotto, Matthew L.·2013·Environmental Health Perspectives

DOI 10.1289/ehp.1206028PMC PMC3673197

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Abstract

Background: Pit latrines are one of the most common human excreta disposal systems in low-income countries, and their use is on the rise as countries aim to meet the sanitation-related target of the Millennium Development Goals. There is concern, however, that discharges of chemical and microbial contaminants from pit latrines to groundwater may negatively affect human health. Objectives: Our goals were to a) calculate global pit latrine coverage, b) systematically review empirical studies of the impacts of pit latrines on groundwater quality, c) evaluate latrine siting standards, and d) identify knowledge gaps regarding the potential for and consequences of groundwater contamination by latrines. Methods: We used existing survey and population data to calculate global pit latrine coverage. We reviewed the scientific literature on the occurrence of contaminants originating from pit latrines and considered the factors affecting transport of these contaminants. Data were extracted from peer-reviewed articles, books, and reports identified using Web of ScienceSM, PubMed, Google, and document reference lists. Discussion: We estimated that approximately 1.77 billion people use pit latrines as their primary means of sanitation. Studies of pit latrines and groundwater are limited and have generally focused on only a few indicator contaminants. Although groundwater contamination is frequently observed downstream of latrines, contaminant transport distances, recommendations based on empirical studies, and siting guidelines are variable and not well aligned with one another. Conclusions: In order to improve environmental and human health, future research should examine a larger set of contextual variables, improve measurement approaches, and develop better criteria for siting pit latrines.

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Padmasiri JP, Jayatilake GM, Kotuwegedara JPK, 1992, Groundwater pollution from double pit latrines. In: Water, Environment and Management: Proceedings of the 18th WEDC Conference, 30 August–3 September 1992, Kathmandu, Nepal. 239–241
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“This has previously been documented, although we did not evaluate the distance between latrines and water sources as part of this study.(37) Universal access to safe water and sanitation is a human right, this is not in doubt.”
Background
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“But this initiated a debate on the caveats of using improperly constructed pit latrines within residential areas as that leads to potentially results to leakage, with possible short-circuiting of human excreta directly to the groundwater that are eventually being abstracted by shallow wells in the vicinity for domesti…”
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Nature provides valuable sanitation services
Willcock, S., Parker, A., Wilson, C., Brewer, T. R., Bundhoo, D., Cooper, S., Lynch, K. D., Mekala, S., Mishra, P. P., Rey, D., et al. (2021) · One Earth · doi:10.1016/j.oneear.2021.01.003 · Cited by 18
“Some studies that detect fecal coliforms in wells do not detect increased nitrate concentrations, while other studies report nitrate concentrations more than double the WHO recommended guideline (50 mg L (1)).(58,59) However, nitrate pollution has numerous possible sources, including fertilizer and livestock slurry an…”
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“In fact, the mechanisms for this have been well documented by Graham and Polizzotto (2013) and similarly reported in Lapwoth et al., (2017).”
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“A comprehensive review of various studies highlighting the impacts of pit latrines on groundwater quality can be found in Graham and Polizzotto (2013).”
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“The reported lateral travel distances from pit toilets (until contaminants could no longer be detected) ranged from 1 m to 27 m for bacterial indicators and chemical tracers (e.g., nitrate, chloride, salts), but as far as 50 m for viruses (Graham and Polizzotto, 2013, and references therein).”
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“77 billion of the world's population (Graham and Polizzotto, 2013).”
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Introduction to the Importance of Sanitation
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“For example, pit latrines, particularly those built where there are shallow groundwater tables or near water sources, may cause fecal and nitrate pollution in water bodies and aquifers (Graham and Polizzotto, 2013).”
Background
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The feasibility of char and bio-oil production from pyrolysis of pit latrine sludge
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Faecal sludge simulants to aid the development of desludging technologies
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Is there a difference in prevalence of helminths between households using ecological sanitation and those using traditional pit latrines? A latrine based cross sectional comparative study in Malawi
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“Alternatively, the main concern for traditional pit latrines is ground water contamination, with no direct link to STH transmission made by users due to lack of direct contact with faecal sludge, therefore they are not seen as a potential route for STH infection [34].”
Background
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“…feces from a multitude of sources, such as the discharge of inadequately treated effluents from wastewater treatment plants, on-site sanitation (OSS) systems, stormwater run-off, wildlife and domestic animals, and animal manure used as fertilizer on agricultural fields (Graham & Polizzotto, 2013).”
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“Pit latrines are used by billions of people, mostly in developing countries, and remain the only viable sanitation option for many communities where they represent a lowcost and low-tech sanitation system (Graham and Polizzotto, 2013; Holm et al., 2016).”
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“8 billion people were reported to utilize pit latrines as the primary means of FS collection (Graham and Polizzotto, 2013).”
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Multi-date trends in groundwater pollution from pit latrines
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“The impacts of heavy metals [28], the influence of pit latrines [29], impact of climate change [30] and the human influence [31] are major factors causing groundwater pollution in most aquifers of the world.”
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“Very few studies have used groundwater models to estimate setback distances based on specific site conditions such as soil type and aquifer properties with the rate of transport of microbiological and chemical contaminants in the aquifer as suggested by Graham & Polizzotto (2013).”
Background
Trash removal methods for improved mechanical emptying of pit latrines using a screw auger
Sisco, T. E., Rogers, T. W., Beckwith, W., Chipeta, W., Holm, R. H., Buckley, C. A., & Reyes, F. L. D. L. (2017) · Journal of Water Sanitation and Hygiene for Development · doi:10.2166/washdev.2017.106 · Cited by 11

Authors: Graham, J. P., & Polizzotto, M. L.
Affiliations: George Washington University (US)
North Carolina State University (US)
Corresponding author: Graham, Jay P.
ORCID: Graham, Jay P.
Polizzotto, Matthew L.
Venue: Environmental Health Perspectives
Publisher: American Chemical Society (ACS)
Published: 2013-03-22
Volume: 121
Issue: 5
Pages: 521-530
ISSN: 0091-6765 (ISSN-L)
1552-9924
DOI: 10.1289/ehp.1206028
PMC: PMC3673197
OpenAlex: W2084155931
Cited by: 431
References: 71
Citations by year: 2026: 41 · 2025: 20 · 2024: 36 · 2023: 44 · 2022: 37 · 2021: 49 · 2020: 42 · 2019: 34 · 2018: 35 · 2017: 44 · 2016: 20 · 2015: 15 · 2014: 11 · 2013: 3
FWCI: 1.60
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: gold
doi.org
Licence: public-domain
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ (vor, 1743 d)
Locations: Environmental Health Perspectives (publishedVersion, public-domain)
Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, public-domain)
PubMed Central (publishedVersion, public-domain)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
eScholarship (California Digital Library) (acceptedVersion)
eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion, public-domain)
Topics: Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Water Science and Technology › Fecal contamination and water quality
Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Waste Management and Disposal › Wastewater Treatment and Reuse
Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Water Science and Technology › Water Quality and Pollution Assessment
Keywords: pit latrines, groundwater contamination, sanitation, microbial contaminants, chemical contaminants, contaminant transport, latrine coverage, low-income countries
MeSH terms: Ammonia, Chlorides, Humans, Nitrates, Sanitation, Toilet Facilities, Water Microbiology, Water Pollutants, Chemical, Water Pollution, Groundwater

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Pit Latrines and Their Impacts on Groundwater Quality: A Systematic Review

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