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Pit Latrines and Their Impacts on Groundwater Quality: A Systematic Review
Open accessAbstract
Background: Pit latrines are one of the most common human excreta disposal systems in low-income countries, and their use is on the rise as countries aim to meet the sanitation-related target of the Millennium Development Goals. There is concern, however, that discharges of chemical and microbial contaminants from pit latrines to groundwater may negatively affect human health. Objectives: Our goals were to a) calculate global pit latrine coverage, b) systematically review empirical studies of the impacts of pit latrines on groundwater quality, c) evaluate latrine siting standards, and d) identify knowledge gaps regarding the potential for and consequences of groundwater contamination by latrines. Methods: We used existing survey and population data to calculate global pit latrine coverage. We reviewed the scientific literature on the occurrence of contaminants originating from pit latrines and considered the factors affecting transport of these contaminants. Data were extracted from peer-reviewed articles, books, and reports identified using Web of ScienceSM, PubMed, Google, and document reference lists. Discussion: We estimated that approximately 1.77 billion people use pit latrines as their primary means of sanitation. Studies of pit latrines and groundwater are limited and have generally focused on only a few indicator contaminants. Although groundwater contamination is frequently observed downstream of latrines, contaminant transport distances, recommendations based on empirical studies, and siting guidelines are variable and not well aligned with one another. Conclusions: In order to improve environmental and human health, future research should examine a larger set of contextual variables, improve measurement approaches, and develop better criteria for siting pit latrines.
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“Some field studies suggest that pit latrines, which are the most typical type of sanitation infrastructure in urban informal settlements, may be less likely to contaminate underlying groundwater when they are lined, particularly in rainy conditions 105 .”
From Urban informal settlements as hotspots of antimicrobial resistance and the need to curb environmental transmission. (2020) · cites this paper as [105]
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“Of the 2.7 billion people using on-site sanitation worldwide [6], an estimated 1.77 billion use some form of pit latrine as their primary means of excreta disposal [12].”
From Are pit latrines in urban areas of Sub-Saharan Africa performing? A review of usage, filling, insects and odour nuisances (2015) · cites this paper as [12]
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Ward, J., Lapworth, D. J., Read, D. S., Pedley, S., Banda, S. T., Monjerezi, M., Gwengweya, G., & MacDonald, A. (2020) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.141284 · Cited by 42
Impact of sampling depth on pathogen detection in pit latrines
Capone, D., Chigwechokha, P. K., Reyes, F. L. D. L., Holm, R. H., Risk, B. B., Tilley, E., & Brown, J. M. (2021) · PLoS neglected tropical diseases · doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0009176 · Cited by 43
“The subsurface transport of pathogens from fecal sludges in latrines to groundwater has been demonstrated under certain hydrological and soil conditions [20].”
BackgroundNgasala, T. M., Masten, S. J., & Phanikumar, M. S. (2019) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.05.202 · Cited by 41
Anastasopoulou, A., Kolios, A., Somorin, T. O., Sowale, A., Jiang, Y., Fidalgo, B., Parker, A., Williams, L., Collins, M., McAdam, E. J., et al. (2018) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.05.062 · Cited by 40
Guo, S., Zhou, X., Simha, P., Perez-Mercado, L. F., Lv, Y., & Li, Z. (2021) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.148660 · Cited by 39
Impact of Land Management on Water Resources, a South African Context
Nkosi, M., Mathivha, F. I., & Odiyo, J. O. (2021) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su13020701 · Cited by 40
“Author Landuse Aspect Impact Location Saraiva Okello et al. [103] Forestry, irrigated agriculture, urbanisation Surface water quantity Changes in streamflow Inkomati RiverCatchmnet Hobbs et al. [62] Groundwater quality Crocodile RiverCatchment Parsons [63] Invasive plants Groundwater resources Reduced flow South Afric…”
BackgroundInfluentialEarly testing of new sanitation technology for urban slums: The case of the Blue Diversion Toilet
Tobias, R., O'Keefe, M., Künzle, R., Gebauer, H., Gründl, H., Morgenroth, E., Pronk, W., & Larsen, T. A. (2017) · Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.10.057 · Cited by 38
“However, with close to two billion people relying on this technology (Graham and Polizzotto, 2013), methane emissions could be substantial.”
BackgroundHussain, F., Clasen, T., Akter, S., Bawel, V., Luby, S. P., Leontsini, E., UNICOMB, L. E., Barua, M. K., Thomas, B., & WINCH, P. J. (2017) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-017-4412-7 · Cited by 40
“8 billion people from low-income countries use pit latrines as their usual form of sanitation [11].”
BackgroundEekert, M. H. A. V., Gibson, W., Torondel, B., Abilahi, F., Liseki, B., Schuman, E., Sumpter, C., & Ensink, J. H. J. (2019) · Water Science & Technology · doi:10.2166/wst.2019.220 · Cited by 37
Díaz-Alcaide, S., & Martínez‐Santos, P. (2019) · Journal of Hydrology · doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2019.124006 · Cited by 37
Klaas, D. K. S. Y., Imteaz, M. A., & Arulrajah, A. (2017) · Water Research · doi:10.1016/j.watres.2017.05.056 · Cited by 36
“Environmental hazard from faecal traces leached from unlined septic tank or pit latrines 369 (Graham and Polizzotto, 2013; Nelson et al., 2014) in most of the houses in the study area could 370 occur in areas nearby the spring.”
BackgroundWong, L. W., Ong, K. S., Khoo, J. R., Goh, C. B. S., Hor, J. W., & Lee, S. M. (2020) · Expert Review of Gastroenterology & Hepatology · doi:10.1080/17474124.2020.1806711 · Cited by 36
Chique, C., Hynds, P. D., Burke, L. P., Morris, D., Ryan, M. P., & O’Dwyer, J. (2020) · Water Research · doi:10.1016/j.watres.2020.116496 · Cited by 37
Evolution of groundwater quality assessment on urban area- a bibliometric analysis
Bose, S., Mazumdar, A., & Basu, S. (2023) · Groundwater for Sustainable Development · doi:10.1016/j.gsd.2022.100894 · Cited by 37
Polioviruses and other Enteroviruses
Betancourt, W. Q., & Shulman, L. M. (2018) · Michigan State University eBooks · doi:10.14321/waterpathogens.15 · Cited by 37
“…that was associated with pit latrines was reported within 50 meters downstream of the latrines (Tillett, 2013; Verheyen et al., 2009) especially in freshly dug latrines where establishment of biofilm and maximum soil-filtering may take months to establish (Graham and Polizzotto, 2013).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialWater Resources Sustainability of Ulaanbaatar City, Mongolia
Batsaikhan, N., Lee, J. M., Nemer, B., & Woo, N. C. (2018) · Water · doi:10.3390/w10060750 · Cited by 34
Mittal, A., Singh, R., Chakma, S., & Goel, G. (2020) · Journal of Water Process Engineering · doi:10.1016/j.jwpe.2020.101471 · Cited by 34
Impact of an Urban Sanitation Intervention on Enteric Pathogen Detection in Soils
Capone, D., Berendes, D. M., Cumming, O., Holcomb, D., Knee, J., Konstantinidis, K. T., Lévy, K., Nalá, R., Risk, B. B., Stewart, J. R., et al. (2021) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/acs.est.1c02168 · Cited by 30
Gwenzi, W. (2021) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.150680 · Cited by 35
“coli indicator bacteria, and viruses including human pathogens have been widely detected in faecal sludge and boreholes located close to pit latrines (Graham and Polizzotto, 2013; Capone et al., 2021; Liu et al., 2021; Otaki et al., 2021).”
BackgroundBioaerosol emissions associated with pit latrine emptying operations
Farling, S., Rogers, T. W., Knee, J., Tilley, E., Brown, J. M., & Deshusses, M. A. (2018) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.08.147 · Cited by 36
“8 billion people use pit latrines as a main means of sanitation (Berendes et al., 2017; Graham and Polizzotto, 2013; Jenkins et al., 2015).”
BackgroundSorensen, J., Carr, A. F., Nayebare, J. G., Diongue, D. M. L., Pouye, A., Roffo, R., Gwengweya, G., Ward, J., Kanoti, J. R., Okotto-Okotto, J., et al. (2020) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-020-72258-2 · Cited by 33
K'oreje, K. O., Okoth, M. O., Langenhove, H. R. V., & Demeestere, K. (2021) · Environmental Pollution · doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2021.118725 · Cited by 33
Manda, A. K., Sisco, M. S., Mallinson, D. J., & Griffin, M. T. (2014) · Hydrological Processes · doi:10.1002/hyp.10303 · Cited by 33
“Many communities across the world rely on pit latrines and onsite wastewater treatment systems (OWTS) – also known as septic systems – for disposing wastewater (e.g. Hanchar, 1991; Humphrey et al., 2012; Graham and Polizzotto, 2013).”
BackgroundOdiyo, J. O., & Makungo, R. (2018) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph15020317 · Cited by 33
“Faecal matter from pit latrines also has potential to contaminate groundwater, thereby threatening human health [8].”
BackgroundBeukes, L. S., King, T. L. B., & Schmidt, Š. (2017) · International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health · doi:10.1016/j.ijheh.2017.08.002 · Cited by 31
Engström, E., Balfors, B., Mörtberg, U. M., Thunvik, R., Gaily, T., & Mangold, M. (2015) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.02.023 · Cited by 31
“Graham and Polizzotto (2013) argued that the ability tomake informed decisions about water and sanitation is largely limited by a scarcity of data, especially regarding the effects of environmental conditions on contamination.”
BackgroundInfluentialKumpel, E., Albert, J., Peletz, R., de Waal, D., Hirn, M., Danilenko, A. V., Uhl, V. W., Daw, A., & Khush, R. S. (2016) · American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene · doi:10.4269/ajtmh.15-0766 · Cited by 30
“are in close proximity to water points can contribute to both microbiological and nitrate contamination.(45,46) In both Port Harcourt and Monrovia, sanitation services are inadequate:”
BackgroundAlemayehu, T. A., Weldetinsae, A., Dinssa, D. A., Derra, F. A., Bedada, T. L., Asefa, Y. B., Mengesha, S. D., Alemu, Z. A., Serte, M. G., Teklu, K. T., et al. (2020) · Environmental Monitoring and Assessment · doi:10.1007/s10661-020-08297-z · Cited by 31
Contreras, J. D., Islam, M., Mertens, A., Pickering, A. J., Kwong, L. H., Arnold, B. F., Benjamin‐Chung, J., Hubbard, A., Alam, M., Sen, D., et al. (2022) · International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health · doi:10.1016/j.ijheh.2022.114031 · Cited by 36
Monney, I., & Antwi-Agyei, P. (2018) · Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development · doi:10.2166/washdev.2018.176 · Cited by 31
Nguyen, A., Grembi, J. A., Riviere, M., Heitmann, G. B., Hutson, W. D., Athni, T. S., Patil, A., Ercümen, A., Lin, A., Crider, Y. S., et al. (2024) · Environmental Health Perspectives · doi:10.1289/ehp13807 · Cited by 34
“10,12,53,54 Compared with other regions, the presence of alluvial soil (consisting of loose silt, clay, and sand) in Bangladesh ’ s fl ood plains may prevent the transport of pathogens from latrines into groundwater supplies.”
A localized sanitation status index as a proxy for fecal contamination in urban Maputo, Mozambique
Capone, D., Adriano, Z., Berendes, D. M., Cumming, O., Dreibelbis, R., Holcomb, D., Knee, J., Ross, I., & Brown, J. M. (2019) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0224333 · Cited by 31
“Groundwater level Community block leader survey � [3,9,45,46]”
BackgroundMutemi, S., Hoko, Z., & Makurira, H. (2020) · Physics and Chemistry of the Earth Parts A/B/C · doi:10.1016/j.pce.2020.102864 · Cited by 33
Trimmer, J. T., Lohman, H. A. C., Byrne, D. M., Houser, S. A., Jjuuko, F., Katende, D., Banadda, N., Zerai, A., Miller, D. C., & Guest, J. S. (2020) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/acs.est.0c03296 · Cited by 30
Metadata
- Authors
- Graham, J. P., & Polizzotto, M. L.
- Affiliations
- George Washington University (US)
- North Carolina State University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Graham, Jay P.
- Venue
- Environmental Health Perspectives
- Publisher
- American Chemical Society (ACS)
- Published
- 2013-03-22
- Volume
- 121
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 521-530
- ISSN
- 0091-6765 (ISSN-L)
- 1552-9924
- PMC
- PMC3673197
- OpenAlex
- W2084155931
- Cited by
- 431
- References
- 71
- Citations by year
- 2026: 41 · 2025: 20 · 2024: 36 · 2023: 44 · 2022: 37 · 2021: 49 · 2020: 42 · 2019: 34 · 2018: 35 · 2017: 44 · 2016: 20 · 2015: 15 · 2014: 11 · 2013: 3
- FWCI
- 1.60
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- public-domain
- creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ (vor, 1743 d)
- Locations
- Environmental Health Perspectives (publishedVersion, public-domain)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, public-domain)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, public-domain)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- eScholarship (California Digital Library) (acceptedVersion)
- eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion, public-domain)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Water Science and Technology › Fecal contamination and water quality
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Waste Management and Disposal › Wastewater Treatment and Reuse
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Water Science and Technology › Water Quality and Pollution Assessment
- Keywords
- pit latrines, groundwater contamination, sanitation, microbial contaminants, chemical contaminants, contaminant transport, latrine coverage, low-income countries
- MeSH terms
- Ammonia, Chlorides, Humans, Nitrates, Sanitation, Toilet Facilities, Water Microbiology, Water Pollutants, Chemical, Water Pollution, Groundwater
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