Approaches to learning, need for cognition, and strategic flexibility among university students.
Abstract
BACKGROUND: Considerable research has described students' deep and surface approaches to learning. Other research has described individuals' self-regulated learning and need for cognition. There is a need for research examining the relationships among these constructs. AIMS: This study explored relationships among approaches to learning (deep, surface), need for cognition, and three types of control of learning (adaptive, inflexible, irresolute). Theory suggested similarities among the deep approach, need for cognition, and adaptive control (aspects of self-regulated learning); and among surface, inflexible, and irresolute control (aspects of an ineffective approach to learning). One-factor and two-factor models were proposed. SAMPLE: Participants were 226 Canadian military college students. METHOD: Participants completed the following questionnaires: the Study Process Questionnaire (Biggs, 1978), the Need for Cognition Scale (Cacioppo & Petty, 1982), and the Strategic Flexibility Questionnaire (Cantwell & Moore, 1996). RESULTS: Confirmatory factor analysis supported the identification of the six scale factors. Second order confirmatory factor analysis indicated three factors representing constructs underlying these factors. CONCLUSIONS: Neither the one- nor two-factor models accounted adequately for the data. Self-regulated learning was defined by measures of the deep approach to learning, need for cognition, and adaptive control of learning. The second factor divided into one factor consisting of irresolute control, the surface approach, and negative need for cognition; and another consisting of inflexible and negative adaptive control. Substantial relationships among scales support the need for further theory development.
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Prior behavioral studies have reported that students with lower NFC tend to prefer surface rather than deep learning strategies, or lack engagement in cognitively demanding learning activities.
“Related to NFC, prior behavioral studies have reported that students with lower NFC have a tendency to prefer learning strategies characterized by surface rather than deep learning (e.g., Evans et al., 2003; Sandra and Otto, 2018), or lack engagement in cognitively demanding learning activities (e.g., Gärtner et al., 2021).”
From Retrieval Practice Is Effective Regardless of Self-Reported Need for Cognition - Behavioral and Brain Imaging Evidence (2022) · cites this paper as Evans et al., 2003
Individuals with lower levels of working memory capacity and NFC are more inclined to use less effective learning strategies given the task at hand.
“Moreover, Gonthier and Roulin (2020) further provide evidence that individuals with lower levels of working memory capacity and NFC are more inclined to use less effective learning strategies given the task at hand (see also Evans et al., 2003 for related findings).”
From Retrieval Practice Is Effective Regardless of Self-Reported Need for Cognition - Behavioral and Brain Imaging Evidence (2022) · cites this paper as Evans et al., 2003
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“…literature examining the role of NFC in the context of acceptance in e-learning (Chen & Wu, 2012; Del Barrio-Garcı́a, Arquero, & Romero-Frı́as, 2015; Evans et al., 2003; Kai-Wen, 2011; Kühl, Eitel, Damnik, & Körndle, 2014; Turner & Croucher, 2013), to our knowledge, no previous research has…”
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“Evans, Kirby, and Fabrigar (2003) assert that strategies associated with the deep approach are “resource-intensive such as reading widely, thinking about what one has read, and making connections with prior knowledge which all require time and mental effort.”
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“…m is di re ct ed o r u np ro du ct iv e eff or t • fe el s u nd er p re ss ur e an d w or rie s do better than others, though outcomes can be highly variable (Campbell and Cabrera 2014; Diseth 2002, 2007, 2013; Evans, Kirby, and Fabrigar 2003; Gijbels et al. 2005; Heikkilä and Lonka 2006; Kember…”
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“As a consequence, they maximize understanding by focusing on meaning and integrating new learning with previous knowledge ( Evans, Kirby, and Fabrigar, 2003 ) and develop the ability to be a versatile learner, one that recognize different academic tasks and designs the appropriate learning strategy (Entwistle, 1977).”
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Rovers, S. F. E., Stalmeijer, R. E., van Merriënboer, J. J. G., Savelberg, H. H. C. M., & de Bruin, A. B. H. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00261 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Schmettow, M., Noordzij, M. L., & Mundt, M. (2013) · CHI Conference Extended Abstracts on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI EA) · doi:10.1145/2468356.2468722 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“In contrast, individuals low in need for cognition show little affection for complex thought and are considered to rely more on others to find meaning in outside events [13].”
BackgroundDonnon, T., & Hecker, K. G. (1969) · Canadian Journal of Higher Education · doi:10.47678/cjhe.v38i1.514 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
From first impressions to selection decisions
Florea, L., Vâlcea, S., Hamdani, M. R., & Dougherty, T. W. (2018) · Personnel Review · doi:10.1108/pr-11-2017-0345 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Individual-level absorptive capacity: Unveiling the interplay between dispositions and work context
Yildiz, H. E., Murtic, A., Morgulis‐Yakushev, S., & Klofsten, M. (2024) · Technovation · doi:10.1016/j.technovation.2024.102965 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“It has been further shown that the need for cognition is essential when solving complex problems, which require the ability to combine new knowledge with an existing knowledge base (Berzonsky and Sulli-van, 1992; Evans et al., 2003).”
Sources of variability in human communicative skills
Volman, I., Noordzij, M. L., & Toni, I. (2012) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2012.00310 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“The sender’s NCS scores and the receiver’s Raven scores accounted for a significant portion of variance in TCG performance [R2 (23) = 0.286, β = 0.367, p = 0.042; β = 0.516, p = 0.006, respectively; see Figure 6B].”
BackgroundInfluentialLin, Y., Durbin, J. M., & Rancer, A. S. (2016) · Communication Quarterly · doi:10.1080/01463373.2015.1103294 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“This selection of appropriate learning strategies is called adaptive control, which has been found in connection with need for cognition (Evans et al., 2003).”
BackgroundInfluentialLearning styles and approaches to learning.
Furnham, A. F. (2011) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/13274-003 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Abbas, M., Khan, T. I., & Jam, F. A. (2025) · Journal of Academic Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10805-025-09659-3 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“Furthermore, students who possess a strong need for cognition tend to be inclined toward engaging in active learning strategies, critical thinking, self-assessment of acquired knowledge, and self-generation of learning material (Colling et al., 2022 ; Evans et al., 2003; Weissgerber et al., 2018 ).”
The Importance of Teachers’ Need for Cognition in Their Use of Technology in Mathematics Instruction
Tanaś, Ł., Winkowska-Nowak, K., & Pobiega, K. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00259 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Personality and Approaches to Learning
Furnham, A. F. (2011) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781444343120.ch22 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Strobel, A., Strobel, A., Preckel, F., & Steinmayr, R. (2024) · AERA Open · doi:10.1177/23328584231218961 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Ali, K. F. M., & Rizvi, K. F. (2019) · Journal of The Pakistan Dental Association · doi:10.25301/jpda.282.68 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Jayawardena, C. K., Hewapathirana, T. N., Banneheka, S., Ariyasinghe, S., & Ihalagedara, D. (2013) · Teaching and Learning in Medicine · doi:10.1080/10401334.2013.827978 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Wiklund-Hörnqvist, C., Stillesjö, S., Andersson, M., Jonsson, B., & Nyberg, L. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.797395 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
A Comparison of Mathematics Learning Approaches of Gifted and Non-Gifted Students
Bulut, A. S., Yıldız, A., & Baltacı, S. (2020) · Türk bilgisayar ve matematik eğitimi dergisi · doi:10.16949/turkbilmat.682111 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Strategic questions : a means of building metacognitive language.
Deed, C. G. (2009) · International journal on teaching and learning in higher education · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Kodapanakkal, R. I., Brandt, M. J., Kogler, C., & van Beest, I. (2021) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2814 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Shaari, R., Mahmud, N. B., Wahab, S. R. A., Rahim, K. A., Rajab, A., & Panatik, S. A. (2012) · Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.03.175 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Analysing metalearning in first‐year undergraduates through their reflective discussions and writing
Norton, L., Owens, T., & Clark, L. (2004) · Innovations in Education and Teaching International · doi:10.1080/1470329042000277011 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“More recent research has emphasized the role of self-regulation on study effectiveness (Bouffard et al. , 1995; Evans et al. , 2003 ).”
MethodPedagogic prestidigitation: using magic tricks to enhance educational videos
Wiseman, R. J., Houstoun, W., & Watt, C. A. (2020) · PeerJ · doi:10.7717/peerj.9610 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Nami, Y., Enayati, T., & Ashouri, M. (2012) · Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.06.705 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
What drives successful verbal communication?
de Boer, M., Toni, I., & Willems, R. M. (2013) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2013.00622 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“They may be more flexible in finding alternatives, if the solution they generated turned out to be incomprehensible for their Addressee (Cacioppo et al., 1984; Evans et al., 2003).”
BackgroundNemeth, L., & Lipowsky, F. (2023) · European Journal of Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s10212-023-00723-3 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“…more deeply, choose strategies more adaptively, and have a more positive attitude towards cognitively challenging tasks (Cacioppo et al., 1996; Evans et al., 2003), which explains why NFC has been associated with academic achievement (von Stumm & Ackermann, 2013), though in studies conducted…”
Cheong, C. M., Zhu, X., & Liu, Y. (2022) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjep.12498 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Sabiote, C. R., Pérez, J. G., & Llorente, M. T. P. (2017) · Electronic Journal of Research in Educational Psychology · doi:10.25115/ejrep.v8i20.1407 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Effect of TRIZ on enhancing employees’ creativity and innovation
Jafari, M., & Zarghami, H. R. (2017) · Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology · doi:10.1108/aeat-01-2016-0004 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Wang, J.-S. (2013) · doi:10.17077/etd.mcsgczk6 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“The findings of Evans et al. (2003), Pascarella et al. (2008), and Nelson Laird et al. (2011) that established the causal linkage between deep approaches to learning and the development of first-year NFC were extended.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialOllesch, L., Venohr, O., & Bodemer, D. (2021) · Computers and Education Open · doi:10.1016/j.caeo.2021.100064 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
A Longitudinal Examination of Student Approaches to Learning and Metacognition
Hands, C., & Limniou, M. (2023) · Journal of Higher Education Theory and Practice · doi:10.33423/jhetp.v23i19.6677 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Rivers, D. J. (2021) · Journal of Educational Computing Research · doi:10.1177/0735633121995903 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“Approaches to learning research considers the composition of contextualized learning activities as likely to influence the relational approach taken by the learner (Evans et al., 2003; Fenollar et al., 2007).”
BackgroundSteinmayr, R., Wirthwein, L., Hufer, A., & Weidinger, A. F. (2023) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2023.102317 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Goal Orientation in Political Science Research Instruction
Anson, I. G. (2020) · Journal of Political Science Education · doi:10.1080/15512169.2020.1791144 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“As task complexity increases, the appeal of “mailing it in” for a minimally-satisfactory grade becomes greater for busy, stressed students (e.g., Evans, Kirby, and Fabrigar 2003).”
BackgroundA qualitative study of undergraduate students' approaches, perceptions, and use of online tools
Armstrong, D. A., II (2010) · USF Scholarship Repository (University of San Francisco) · Cited by 6 · see citing works
- Authors
- Evans, C. J., Kirby, J. R., & Fabrigar, L. R.
- Affiliations
- Queen's University (CA)
- Corresponding author
- Kirby, John R.
- Venue
- British Journal of Educational Psychology
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2003-12
- Volume
- 73
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 507-528
- ISSN
- 0007-0998 (ISSN-L)
- 2044-8279
- OpenAlex
- W2042471163
- Cited by
- 174
- References
- 28
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 3 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 10 · 2022: 11 · 2021: 10 · 2020: 11 · 2019: 5 · 2018: 6 · 2017: 7 · 2016: 9 · 2015: 10 · 2014: 9 · 2013: 13 · 2012: 5
- FWCI
- 17.44
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- British Journal of Educational Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Library and Archives Canada (Government of Canada) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Education › Evaluation of Teaching Practices
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational Strategies and Epistemologies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Keywords
- learning methods, deep learning, surface learning, need for cognition, strategic flexibility, student self-regulation, adaptive control, university students, military cadets, Study Process Questionnaire, Need for Cognition Scale, factor structure
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Cognition, Female, Humans, Learning, Male, Middle Aged, Surveys and Questionnaires, Students, Universities
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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