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Sex-Related Differences in Gene Expression in Human Skeletal Muscle
Open accessAbstract
There is sexual dimorphism of skeletal muscle, the most obvious feature being the larger muscle mass of men. The molecular basis for this difference has not been clearly defined. To identify genes that might contribute to the relatively greater muscularity of men, we compared skeletal muscle gene expression profiles of 15 normal men and 15 normal women by using comprehensive oligonucleotide microarrays. Although there were sex-related differences in expression of several hundred genes, very few of the differentially expressed genes have functions that are obvious candidates for explaining the larger muscle mass of men. The men tended to have higher expression of genes encoding mitochondrial proteins, ribosomal proteins, and a few translation initiation factors. The women had >2-fold greater expression than the men (P<0.0001) of two genes that encode proteins in growth factor pathways known to be important in regulating muscle mass: growth factor receptor-bound 10 (GRB10) and activin A receptor IIB (ACVR2B). GRB10 encodes a protein that inhibits insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) signaling. ACVR2B encodes a myostatin receptor. Quantitative RT-PCR confirmed higher expression of GRB10 and ACVR2B genes in these women. In an independent microarray study of 10 men and 9 women with facioscapulohumeral dystrophy, women had higher expression of GRB10 (2.7-fold, P<0.001) and ACVR2B (1.7-fold, P<0.03). If these sex-related differences in mRNA expression lead to reduced IGF-1 activity and increased myostatin activity, they could contribute to the sex difference in muscle size.
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“Previous studies have identified over 3,000 genes that are differentially expressed in male and female skeletal muscle.”
From Sex-Based Differences in Skeletal Muscle Kinetics and Fiber-Type Composition (2015) · cites this paper as [96]
In the citing paper
“Analysis of mRNA from both male and female vastus lateralis biopsies by microarray shows (when normalized to α-actinin) that the female muscle has 35% more MyHC-I/β, 30% less MyHC-IIa, and 15% less MyHC-IIx mRNA than the corresponding male muscle (96).”
From Sex-Based Differences in Skeletal Muscle Kinetics and Fiber-Type Composition (2015) · cites this paper as [96]
In the citing paper
“In this study, the authors focus on two particular genes that are upregulated in women compared with men and that are known to code for proteins that are in signaling pathways of growth factors known to regulate muscle mass: growth factor receptor-bound protein 10 (GRB10) and activin receptor type-2A (ACVR2A).”
From Sex-Based Differences in Skeletal Muscle Kinetics and Fiber-Type Composition (2015) · cites this paper as [96]
In the citing paper
“The identification of over 3,000 genes differentially regulated in male and female muscle highlights the complex differences that occur in skeletal muscle from both sexes (96).”
From Sex-Based Differences in Skeletal Muscle Kinetics and Fiber-Type Composition (2015) · cites this paper as [96]
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Effects of Testosterone Replacement in Hypogonadal Men
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Preprocessing of oligonucleotide array data
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“The gene expression database was examined for differential expression in men and women after re-calculating expression scores with the GCRMA method [52] as implemented by ArrayAssist Lite software (Stratagene, Version 3.”
MethodGene expression profile of aging in human muscle
Welle, S. L., Brooks, A. I., Delehanty, J. M., Needler, N. A., & Thornton, C. A. (2003) · Physiological Genomics · doi:10.1152/physiolgenomics.00049.2003 · Cited by 364 · cited 3×
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MethodSelf-citationKent‐Braun, J. A., Ng, A., Doyle, J., & Towse, T. F. (2002) · Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00091.2002 · Cited by 357 · cited 1×
“There is sexual dimorphism of skeletal muscle in overall mass, size of individual fibers, activities of several metabolic enzymes, lipid content and oxidation, relative expression of different myosin isoforms, fatigability, and expression of a number of genes [1–9].”
Hunter, S. K., & Enoka, R. M. (2001) · Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1152/jappl.2001.91.6.2686 · Cited by 354 · cited 1×
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Muscle composition in relation to age and sex
Forsberg, A. M., Nilsson, E., Werneman, J., Bergström, J., & Hultman, E. (1991) · Clinical Science · doi:10.1042/cs0810249 · Cited by 282 · cited 1×
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Gender differences in substrate utilization during submaximal exercise in endurance-trained subjects
Roepstorff, C., Steffensen, C. H., Madsen, M., Stallknecht, B., Kanstrup, I.-L., Richter, E. A., & Kiens, B. (2002) · American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology and Metabolism · doi:10.1152/ajpendo.00266.2001 · Cited by 279 · cited 1×
“There is sexual dimorphism of skeletal muscle in overall mass, size of individual fibers, activities of several metabolic enzymes, lipid content and oxidation, relative expression of different myosin isoforms, fatigability, and expression of a number of genes [1–9].”
Kim, J.-S., Cross, J. M., & Bamman, M. M. (2005) · American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology and Metabolism · doi:10.1152/ajpendo.00464.2004 · Cited by 264 · cited 7×
“Quantitative RT-PCR confirmed higher expression of GRB10 and ACVR2B genes in these women.”
InfluentialEffects of filtering by Present call on analysis of microarray experiments
McClintick, J. N., & Edenberg, H. J. (2006) · BMC Bioinformatics · doi:10.1186/1471-2105-7-49 · Cited by 236 · cited 1×
“10) ‘‘detection P’’ values (Affymetrix algorithm) for more than half of the arrays from the group with higher mean expression were excluded from further analysis, which reduces the number of false positives [53,55].”
SIPILÄ, S., TAAFFE, D. R., CHENG, S., PUOLAKKA, J., TOIVANEN, J., & SUOMINEN, H. (2001) · Clinical Science · doi:10.1042/cs1010147 · Cited by 230
Myocellular triacylglycerol breakdown in females but not in males during exercise
Steffensen, C. H., Roepstorff, C., Madsen, M., & Kiens, B. (2002) · American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology and Metabolism · doi:10.1152/ajpendo.00078.2001 · Cited by 225 · cited 1×
“There is sexual dimorphism of skeletal muscle in overall mass, size of individual fibers, activities of several metabolic enzymes, lipid content and oxidation, relative expression of different myosin isoforms, fatigability, and expression of a number of genes [1–9].”
Skeletal muscle gene expression profiles in 20–29 year old and 65–71 year old women
Welle, S., Brooks, A. I., Delehanty, J. M., Needler, N., Bhatt, K., Shah, B., & Thornton, C. A. (2004) · Experimental Gerontology · doi:10.1016/j.exger.2003.11.011 · Cited by 210 · cited 3×
“Quadriceps strength, maximal oxygen consumption, and body composition measures were done as described elsewhere [21,22].”
MethodSelf-citationGender Differences in Resistance-Training-Induced Myofiber Hypertrophy Among Older Adults
Bamman, M. M., Hill, V. J., Adams, G. R., Haddad, F., Wetzstein, C. J., Gower, B. A., Ahmed, A., & Hunter, G. R. (2003) · The Journals of Gerontology Series A · doi:10.1093/gerona/58.2.b108 · Cited by 199 · cited 3×
“In contrast, there is not a sex difference in expression of the IGF-1 receptor according to the present microarray study and a previous study in which IGFR gene expression was determined by RT-PCR analysis [10].”
Nelson, C. C., Hendy, S. C., Shukin, R. J., Cheng, H., Bruchovsky, N., Koop, B. F., & Rennie, P. S. (1999) · Molecular Endocrinology · doi:10.1210/mend.13.12.0396 · Cited by 198 · cited 1×
“Consensus androgen responsive elements [44,45] are not near (within 5 kb) the transcription start sites of these genes.”
Welle, S. L., Thornton, C. A., & Statt, M. (1995) · American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology and Metabolism · doi:10.1152/ajpendo.1995.268.3.e422 · Cited by 186 · cited 1×
“Moreover, there is no evidence for increased fractional muscle protein turnover in women [49–51], suggesting that increased muscle proteolysis is not responsible for the smaller muscle mass of women.”
Self-citationRoth, S. M., Martel, G. F., Ferrell, R. E., Metter, E. J., Hurley, B. F., & Rogers, M. A. (2003) · Experimental Biology and Medicine · doi:10.1177/153537020322800609 · Cited by 184 · cited 7×
“Quantitative RT-PCR confirmed higher expression of GRB10 and ACVR2B genes in these women.”
InfluentialA stain upon the silence: genes escaping X inactivation
Brown, C. J., & Greally, J. M. (2003) · Trends in Genetics · doi:10.1016/s0168-9525(03)00177-x · Cited by 157 · cited 1×
“As expected, the largest sex differences in signal intensity were observed with Y-chromosome genes and XIST, which mediates inactivation of one copy of the X chromosome in female cells [24] (Figure 1).”
Verrijdt, G. (2003) · Molecular Genetics and Metabolism · doi:10.1016/s1096-7192(03)00003-9 · Cited by 148 · cited 1×
“Consensus androgen responsive elements [44,45] are not near (within 5 kb) the transcription start sites of these genes.”
Expression profile of FSHD supports a link between retinal vasculopathy and muscular dystrophy
Osborne, R. J., Welle, S. L., Venance, S. L., Thornton, C. A., & Tawil, R. (2006) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/01.wnl.0000251269.31442.d9 · Cited by 145 · cited 1×
“We also examined our database of expression profiles of 10 men and 9 women with facioscapulohumeral dystrophy [25] for a sex difference in expression of GRB10 and ACVR2B.”
Self-citationPeripheral Disruption of the Grb10 Gene Enhances Insulin Signaling and Sensitivity In Vivo
Wang, L., Balas, B., Christ-Roberts, C. Y., Kim, R. Y., Ramos, F. J., Kikani, C. K., Li, C., Deng, C., Reyna, S. M., Musi, N., et al. (2007) · Molecular and Cellular Biology · doi:10.1128/mcb.00679-07 · Cited by 138 · cited 1×
“The plausibility of this hypothesis is supported by recent studies demonstrating that GRB10 knockout in mice was associated with increased muscularity [31,34].”
Smith, F. M., Holt, L. J., Garfield, A. S., Charalambous, M., Koumanov, F., Perry, M., Bazzani, R., Sheardown, S. A., Hegarty, B. D., Lyons, R. J., et al. (2007) · Molecular and Cellular Biology · doi:10.1128/mcb.02087-06 · Cited by 134 · cited 3×
“The plausibility of this hypothesis is supported by recent studies demonstrating that GRB10 knockout in mice was associated with increased muscularity [31,34].”
Roth, S. M., Ferrell, R. E., Peters, D. G., Metter, E. J., Hurley, B. F., & Rogers, M. A. (2002) · Physiological Genomics · doi:10.1152/physiolgenomics.00028.2002 · Cited by 134 · cited 1×
“reported differences between men and women in the muscle expression of ,20% of ,1,000 transcripts that yielded reliable signals on cDNA arrays [4].”
Muscle growth after postdevelopmental myostatin gene knockout
Welle, S. L., Bhatt, K. S., Pinkert, C. A., Tawil, R., & Thornton, C. A. (2006) · American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology and Metabolism · doi:10.1152/ajpendo.00531.2006 · Cited by 114 · cited 1×
“Post-developmental inhibition of myostatin activity causes muscle hypertrophy in mice without increasing the number of muscle fibers [37–39].”
Self-citationStimulation of myofibrillar synthesis by exercise is mediated by more efficient translation of mRNA
Welle, S. L., Bhatt, K. S., & Thornton, C. A. (1999) · Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1152/jappl.1999.86.4.1220 · Cited by 112 · cited 1×
“Expression of the MYH genes was determined with a competitive PCR method [56].”
Self-citationEstrogen/gestagen therapy changes soft tissue body composition in postmenopausal women
Hassager, C., & Christiansen, C. (1989) · Metabolism · doi:10.1016/0026-0495(89)90104-2 · Cited by 109 · cited 1×
“The sex difference in muscle mass is presumed to be mediated by higher testosterone levels in men, because of the well known anabolic effect of testosterone [11–13] and because estrogens and progestins do not reduce muscle mass [14–17].”
Postprandial myofibrillar and whole body protein synthesis in young and old human subjects
Welle, S. L., Thornton, C. A., Statt, M., & McHenry, B. (1994) · American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology and Metabolism · doi:10.1152/ajpendo.1994.267.4.e599 · Cited by 105 · cited 1×
“Moreover, there is no evidence for increased fractional muscle protein turnover in women [49–51], suggesting that increased muscle proteolysis is not responsible for the smaller muscle mass of women.”
Self-citationEstrogen Replacement, Muscle Composition, and Physical Function: The Health ABC Study
Taaffe, D. R., Newman, A. B., Haggerty, C. L., Colbert, L. H., de Rekeneire, N., Visser, M., Goodpaster, B. H., Nevitt, M. C., Tylavsky, F. A., & Harris, T. B. (2005) · Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise · doi:10.1249/01.mss.0000181678.28092.31 · Cited by 88 · cited 1×
“The sex difference in muscle mass is presumed to be mediated by higher testosterone levels in men, because of the well known anabolic effect of testosterone [11–13] and because estrogens and progestins do not reduce muscle mass [14–17].”
Dufresne, A. M., & Smith, R. J. (2005) · Endocrinology · doi:10.1210/en.2005-0150 · Cited by 75 · cited 1×
“However, IGF-1 signaling might be reduced in women because of their elevated expression of GRB10, which encodes a protein that interferes with IGF-1 signal transduction [30,31].”
Two Classes of Androgen Receptor Elements Mediate Cooperativity through Allosteric Interactions
Reid, K. J., Hendy, S. C., Saito, J., Sørensen, P. D., & Nelson, C. C. (2001) · Journal of Biological Chemistry · doi:10.1074/jbc.m009170200 · Cited by 70 · cited 1×
“It must be emphasized that many, if not most, functional androgen responsive elements differ in several bases from the consensus motif [46].”
Sexual dimorphism is associated with decreased expression of processed myostatin in males
McMahon, C. D., Popović, L., Jeanplong, F., Oldham, J. M., Kirk, S. P., Osepchook, C. C., Wong, K. W. Y., Sharma, M., Kambadur, R., & Bass, J. J. (2003) · American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology and Metabolism · doi:10.1152/ajpendo.00282.2002 · Cited by 61 · cited 1×
“For example, myostatin protein levels in muscle are higher in female than male mice even though mRNA levels are similar in males and females [42].”
Ramos, F. J., Langlais, P. R., Hu, D., Dong, L., & Liu, F. (2006) · American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology and Metabolism · doi:10.1152/ajpendo.00609.2005 · Cited by 60 · cited 1×
“, in part by mediating degradation of the insulin receptor”
BackgroundNegative Regulation of Insulin-Stimulated Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase Signaling By Grb10
Langlais, P. R., Dong, L., Ramos, F. J., Hu, D., Li, Y., Quon, M. J., & Liu, F. (2003) · Molecular Endocrinology · doi:10.1210/me.2003-0117 · Cited by 59 · cited 1×
“GRB10 also interferes with insulin signaling [31,32], in part by mediating degradation of the insulin receptor [33], but the 3-fold increase in insulin receptor gene expression in women (Table 2) could serve to minimize any negative effect on insulin sensitivity that increased GRB10 expression might have.”
Walsh, S., Metter, E. J., Ferrucci, L., & Roth, S. M. (2007) · Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.01322.2006 · Cited by 53 · cited 1×
“It was reported recently that women with different ACVR2B haplotypes had different levels of quadriceps strength, although this was not observed in men, and there was no difference in leg muscle mass as assessed by DEXA [43].”
Jahn, L. A., Barrett, E. J., Genco, M., Wei, L., Spraggins, T. A., & Fryburg, D. A. (1999) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jcem.84.3.5522 · Cited by 52 · cited 1×
“Moreover, there is no evidence for increased fractional muscle protein turnover in women [49–51], suggesting that increased muscle proteolysis is not responsible for the smaller muscle mass of women.”
Gender difference of androgen actions on skeletal muscle transcriptome
Yoshioka, M., Boivin, A., Bolduc, C., & St‐Amand, J. (2007) · Journal of Molecular Endocrinology · doi:10.1677/jme-07-0027 · Cited by 43 · cited 1×
“[20] used serial analysis of gene expression (SAGE) to compare muscle gene expression in male and female mice, but SAGE is better suited for studying highly-expressed genes, such as those encoding metabolic and contractile proteins, than for studying the majority of transcripts that are expressed at lower levels.”
Oestrogen-progestogen replacement therapy changes body composition in early post-menopausal women
Jensen, J., Christiansen, C., & Rødbro, P. (1986) · Maturitas · doi:10.1016/0378-5122(86)90028-9 · Cited by 39 · cited 1×
“and because estrogens and progestins do not reduce muscle mass”
Computational method for reducing variance with Affymetrix microarrays
Welle, S. L., Brooks, A. I., & Thornton, C. A. (2002) · BMC Bioinformatics · doi:10.1186/1471-2105-3-23 · Cited by 37 · cited 2×
“10) ‘‘detection P’’ values (Affymetrix algorithm) for more than half of the arrays from the group with higher mean expression were excluded from further analysis, which reduces the number of false positives [53,55].”
Self-citationJahn, L. A. (1999) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.84.3.1007 · Cited by 36
MICROARRAY ANALYSIS OF MUSCLE GENE EXPRESSION
Roth, S. M., Ferrell, R. E., Peters, D. G., Metter, E. J., Martel, G. F., Hurley, B. F., & Rogers, M. A. (2002) · Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise · doi:10.1097/00005768-200205001-01059 · Cited by 5
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Fiber Types in Mammalian Skeletal Muscles
Schiaffino, S., & Reggiani, C. (2011) · Physiological Reviews · doi:10.1152/physrev.00031.2010 · Cited by 3,022
“Thus, in men, the levels of MyHC-slow transcripts are lower than in women and the levels of MyHC-2A and -2X transcripts are higher (855).”
BackgroundSex differences in human fatigability: mechanisms and insight to physiological responses
Hunter, S. K. (2014) · Acta Physiologica · doi:10.1111/apha.12234 · Cited by 595
Sex-Based Differences in Skeletal Muscle Kinetics and Fiber-Type Composition
Haizlip, K. M., Harrison, B. C., & Leinwand, L. A. (2015) · Physiology · doi:10.1152/physiol.00024.2014 · Cited by 521
“Analysis of mRNA from both male and female vastus lateralis biopsies by microarray shows (when normalized to -actinin) that the female muscle has 35% more MyHC-I/ , 30% less MyHC-IIa, and 15% less MyHC-IIx mRNA than the corresponding male muscle (96).”
BackgroundInfluentialAnsdell, P., Thomas, K., Hicks, K. M., Hunter, S. K., Howatson, G., & Goodall, S. (2020) · Experimental Physiology · doi:10.1113/ep088548 · Cited by 403
“Sex differences in genetic expression and phenotype within skeletal muscle at rest are well established (Lindholm et al., 2014; Welle et al., 2008); however, whether sex mediates the phenotypic adaptation to endurance training is not clear.”
BackgroundThe role of sex in the genomics of human complex traits
Khramtsova, E. A., Davis, L. K., & Stranger, B. E. (2019) · Nature Reviews Genetics · doi:10.1038/s41576-018-0083-1 · Cited by 303
Metadata
- Authors
- Welle, S., Tawil, R., & Thornton, C. A.
- Affiliations
- University of Rochester Medicine (US)
- Corresponding author
- Welle, Stephen
- Venue
- PLoS ONE
- Publisher
- Public Library of Science (PLoS)
- Published
- 2008-01-02
- Volume
- 3
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- e1385
- ISSN
- 1932-6203 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC2148100
- OpenAlex
- W2094746410
- Cited by
- 224
- References
- 62
- Citations by year
- 2026: 8 · 2025: 22 · 2024: 19 · 2023: 27 · 2022: 24 · 2021: 23 · 2020: 9 · 2019: 12 · 2018: 16 · 2017: 5 · 2016: 8 · 2015: 6 · 2014: 9 · 2013: 5 · 2012: 4
- FWCI
- 3.42
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Locations
- PLoS ONE (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Funders
- University of Rochester
- National Institutes of Health
- National Institute on Aging (AG18254, AG17891, P30AG018254, R01AG017891)
- National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases (AR/NS48143, K24AR048143)
- National Center for Research Resources (RR-00044, M01RR000044)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Muscle Physiology and Disorders
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Genetics and Physical Performance
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Muscle metabolism and nutrition
- Keywords
- sex differences, skeletal muscle, gene expression, sexual dimorphism, muscle mass, Grb10, ACVR2B, IGF-1 signaling, facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy, mitochondrial proteins, ribosomal proteins, growth factor pathways
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Aged, Female, Gene Expression Regulation, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Sex Factors, Muscle, Skeletal, Oligonucleotide Array Sequence Analysis
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