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Understanding and Using the Brief Implicit Association Test: Recommended Scoring Procedures
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Abstract
A brief version of the Implicit Association Test (BIAT) has been introduced.The present research identified analytical best practices for overall psychometric performance of the BIAT.In 7 studies and multiple replications, we investigated analytic practices with several evaluation criteria: sensitivity to detecting known effects and group differences, internal consistency, relations with implicit measures of the same topic, relations with explicit measures of the same topic and other criterion variables, and resistance to an extraneous influence of average response time.The data transformation algorithms D outperformed other approaches.This replicates and extends the strong prior performance of D compared to conventional analytic techniques.We conclude with recommended analytic practices for standard use of the BIAT. Understanding and Using the Brief Implicit Association Test: I. Recommended Scoring ProceduresEven the most brilliant research ideas can flounder if data collection procedures and data analytic strategies applied in the pursuit of these ideas are suboptimal.Research efficiency, the knowledge gained in proportion to resources invested, can be improved by maximizing the quality of procedural and analytical methods.Numerous paradigms in mental chronometry, such as Stroop and lexical-decision tasks, define constructs derived from contrasting response latencies between performance conditions [1].The Implicit Association Test (IAT) [2] is a
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“Una limitación general de los auto-reportes es que la actitud u otra medida consciente reportada puede ser exagerada o suprimida de manera intencional.”
From El estudio de la polarización afectiva: una mirada metodológica (2022) · cites this paper as Nosek et al., 2014
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“Esto es particularmente relevante en temas sensibles, en los que existe mucha presión social para no expresar públicamente ciertas opiniones o actitudes, como puede ser, por ejemplo, la discriminación racial (Nosek et al., 2014).”
From El estudio de la polarización afectiva: una mirada metodológica (2022) · cites this paper as Nosek et al., 2014
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Cites
Society and the Adolescent Self-Image
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“Self-reported attitudes and individual difference measures Each participant received a random selection of self-report measures including (a) 7-point relative preference for Democrats compared to Republicans, White people compared to Black people, and Self compared to Other; (b) 11-point warmth ratings for each of tho…”
Society and the adolescent self-image
Stoodley, B. H., & Rosenberg, M. (1966) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.2307/2091308 · Cited by 16,818
Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: the implicit association test
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“Also, the order of measurement blocks is a well-known influence on response latency measures like the IAT [2, 24].”
BackgroundSelf-citationUnderstanding and using the Implicit Association Test: I. An improved scoring algorithm.
Greenwald, A. G., Nosek, B. A., & Banaji, M. R. (2003) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.85.2.197 · Cited by 5,815 · cited 10×
“Assessments that minimize random error in measurement of height and weight will maximize their correlation, getting it closest to the true correlation (assuming that the assessments are not influenced by the same extraneous influence; see also [7]).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationUnderstanding and using the Implicit Association Test: III. Meta-analysis of predictive validity.
Greenwald, A. G., Poehlman, T. A., Uhlmann, E. L., & Banaji, M. R. (2009) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0015575 · Cited by 3,257 · cited 1×
“Also, the BIAT has found application in many studies already [10–13] The present studies analyzed data from a very large data collection in a study that administrated a random selection of measures of attitudes regarding race, politics and the self from a large pool of possible indirect and direct attitude measures [1…”
MethodSelf-citationFazio, R. H., Jackson, J. R., Dunton, B. C., & Williams, C. J. (1995) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.69.6.1013 · Cited by 1,793 · cited 1×
“Other implicit measures In addition to Brief IATs measuring the three topics of interest, participants were randomly assigned to complete one or more of seven other implicit measures about the same topics – the IAT, Go/No-go Association Task (GNAT) [27], single-target (ST-IAT) [28], Sorting Paired Features [29], Evalu…”
MethodAn inkblot for attitudes: Affect misattribution as implicit measurement.
Payne, B. K., Cheng, C. M., Govorun, O., & Stewart, B. D. (2005) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.89.3.277 · Cited by 1,371 · cited 1×
“Other implicit measures In addition to Brief IATs measuring the three topics of interest, participants were randomly assigned to complete one or more of seven other implicit measures about the same topics – the IAT, Go/No-go Association Task (GNAT) [27], single-target (ST-IAT) [28], Sorting Paired Features [29], Evalu…”
MethodHarvesting implicit group attitudes and beliefs from a demonstration web site.
Nosek, B. A., Banaji, M. R., & Greenwald, A. G. (2002) · Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice · doi:10.1037/1089-2699.6.1.101 · Cited by 1,321 · cited 1×
“Both elicit strong effects favoring whites to blacks and self to others respectively [15–17].”
BackgroundSelf-citationPervasiveness and correlates of implicit attitudes and stereotypes
Nosek, B. A., Smyth, F. L., Hansen, J. J., Devos, T., Lindner, N. M., Ranganath, K. A., Smith, C. T., Olson, K. R., Chugh, D., Greenwald, A. G., et al. (2007) · European Review of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/10463280701489053 · Cited by 1,247 · cited 1×
“Likewise, Black and White people have different implicit racial attitudes – each more inclined to show positivity toward their own racial group, though Whites more so – providing another group difference criterion [16].”
BackgroundSelf-citationUnderstanding and Using the Implicit Association Test: II. Method Variables and Construct Validity
Nosek, B. A., Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. R. (2004) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167204271418 · Cited by 1,216 · cited 1×
“Also, the order of measurement blocks is a well-known influence on response latency measures like the IAT [2, 24].”
BackgroundSelf-citation
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- Greenwald AG, Nosek BA (2008) Attitudinal dissociation: What does it mean? In: Petty RE, Fazio RH, Brinol Peditors. Attitudes: Insights from the new implicit measures. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. pp.65–82.
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North Korean refugees’ implicit bias against South Korea predicts market earnings
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“In addition to adjusting the previous trial exclusion criteria, we also adopted the participant exclusion criteria used by Qian et al. (2016), which is based off of recent D-score calculation recommendations for excluding participants who did not complete the task accurately (Nosek et al., 2014).”
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Puzio, A., & Best, D. L. (2020) · Journal of Adolescence · doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2020.09.011 · Cited by 10
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“However, additional data cleaning steps were undertaken by the authors (as per recommendations by [65]) including: (1) removing non-Amer-ican residents,(2) removing participants with impossible values for race, explicit bias, or Bias Scores; (3) removing participants who completed the IAT task too…”
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“…indicated previously, communicated self-report of STBs during clinical evaluation is formed by “higher” cognitive processes, while more basic cognitive and affective features of implicit attributions are captured by implicit measures such as the D/S-IAT (Nosek et al., 2014; Podlogar et al., 2020).”
Wagner‐Altendorf, T. A., van der Lugt, A., Kroeber, A., Cirkel, A., Heldmann, M., & Münte, T. F. (2023) · Cognitive and Behavioral Neurology · doi:10.1097/wnn.0000000000000338 · Cited by 4
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Bar‐Anan, Y., & Nosek, B. A. (2013) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-013-0410-6 · Cited by 387
“The BIAT was developed as a short form of the IAT, but evidence suggests that it may have some unique measurement qualities (Nosek et al., 2013; Sriram & Greenwald, 2009).”
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“Implicit scores for each trait were computed using the D measure (Greenwald et al., 2003), which is the difference between the mean latencies of the two blocks of interest divided by the standard deviation of latencies in the two blocks (Nosek et al., 2014).”
Bergh, C., & Hoobler, J. M. (2022) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-022-03292-8 · Cited by 2
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The Automatic Basis of Exercise Behavior
Brand, R., & Gutmann, F. (2020) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781119568124.ch47 · Cited by 3
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Shi, Y., Cai, H., Shen, Y. A., & Jing, Y. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00038 · Cited by 3
“As a kind of measure based on response latency, practice may influence IAT and BIAT effect (Nosek et al., 2014).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialInvestigating gender stereotypes in nursing/midwifery and engineering students in Ireland
Chatzi, A., & Kourousis, K. (2024) · International Journal of Educational Research Open · doi:10.1016/j.ijedro.2024.100367 · Cited by 2
Lisi, M. P., Frisanco, A., Giometti, A., Perrone, G., Ferri, D., & Aglioti, S. M. (2026) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2026.109089 · Cited by 1
Assessing spontaneous responses to insect-based foods using BIAT and manikin task
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“To calculate the D score (Nosek et al., 2014), we calculated the sum of correct trials (dichotomized) for stimulus responses in blocks 2 and 4 for each respondent.”
Explicit and implicit beliefs about discrimination on the basis of sex
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“Experimental design and procedure closely followed past BIAT research (Nosek et al., 2014).”
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“…(RT) of congruent (moral-negative) blocks from that of incongruent (moral-positive) blocks, and dividing the result by the pooled standard deviation of the two blocks 33 As both the numerator and denominator are measured in milliseconds, the resulting D score is a dimensionless (unitless) value.”
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“Analyses were carried out according to recommendations (Nosek et al., 2014; Sriram & Greenwald, 2009).”
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“…contrasting conditions that use response latency as a dependent variable, with validation work on the IAT and BIAT suggesting it helps optimize correlations with explicit measures and mitigates contamination by individual differences in reaction time (Greenwald et al., 2003; Nosek et al., 2014).”
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Exploring attitudes and preferences toward species at risk in British Columbia
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“39 MC-IAT D scores (Nosek et al., 2014) were calculated using the following formula: ) )) ) *RT= response time *SD= standard deviation 40 Four D scores (i.e., one per species) per participant were calculated.”
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“(Nosek et al., 2014).”
Chen, J. T., Johnson, N., Reisner, S. L., Marini, M., LeBlanc, M. E., Matthews, M. M., Mayer, K. H., Oendari, A., Valdez, G., Khan, T., et al. (2026) · Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1080/08964289.2026.2633348
“Each BIAT followed the standard procedure by Sriram and Greenwald, 57,58 consisting of four blocks of 20 trials, with block order counterbalanced across participants.”
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“A preliminary analysis identified six participants with error rates (ERs) above 90%, an abnormal value for a task without time restrictions (see Nosek et al., 2014), that were not included in the analysis.”
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French, N. J., Freichel, R., Kahveci, S., Werntz, A. J., Howell, J. L., Lindgren, K. P., O’Shea, B. A., Boker, S. M., & Teachman, B. A. (2025) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/21677026251359621
“BIAT data were examined for exclusion following the scoring algorithm described by Nosek et al. (2014).”
Corneta, A. L., & Pianaro, F. L. (2025) · RECIMA21 - Revista Científica Multidisciplinar - ISSN 2675-6218 · doi:10.47820/recima21.v6i4.6346
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Block, K., & Schmader, T. (2025) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298868.2025.2477003 · Cited by 3
“As planned, we excluded 23 participants ( n = 2 not identifying as male; n = 21 with >10% of reaction times below 300 ms and/or >30% errors on the Brief Implicit Association task (bIAT), based on current recommendation for this task (Nosek et al., 2014), 4 leading to a final sample of 129.”
Chen, H.-D., Zheng, E.-J., Lai, K.-Y., Zhao, B., Wei, T., Gao, L.-F., & Li, W.-J. (2025) · Journal of Psychoactive Drugs · doi:10.1080/02791072.2025.2462004
“Consistent with previous researches (Greenwald, Nosek, and Banaji 2003; Nosek et al. 2014), to create BIAT scores, D-scores were calculated for each participant and standardized within each condition.”
Learning by Example: Does Positive Nonverbal Behavior Reduce Children's Racial Bias?
Gonzalez, A. M., Skinner, A. L., & Baron, A. S. (2025) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.13614
Proactivity and Oroactive Behavior of Poor Students: Studying Explicit and Implicit Attitudes
Egorova, S., & Zorina, S. V. (2024) · Semiotic studies · doi:10.18287/2782-2966-2024-4-2-102-113
Hinojosa, B. M., Meese, W. B., Howell, J. L., Lindgren, K. P., O'Shea, B., Teachman, B., & Werntz, A. (2023) · Social & Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/spc3.12905
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Choi, S., Hahn, K., Kim, B.-Y., Lee, E., Lee, J., & Lee, S. (2023) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2304.00651
“The final sample consists of 287 NK refugees and 287 SK natives by eliminating 10 subjects, 6 replacement subjects from Nielsen Korea to form groups and 4 subjects who exhibited too erratic behavior in the IAT (see Nosek et al., 2014).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialWerntz, A. J., O’Shea, B. A., Sjobeck, G., Howell, J. L., Lindgren, K. P., & Teachman, B. A. (2023) · Anxiety Stress & Coping · doi:10.1080/10615806.2023.2176486
A Cross-Species Examination of Pro-White Color Bias Using a Novel Implicit Association Test
Coleman, J. A., Nonterah, C., Joy-Gaba, J. A., Phills, C. E., & Jacobson, K. (2021) · Anthrozoos · doi:10.1080/08927936.2021.1996024
“The IAT uses a block-design to present different stimuli across 12–48 trials, per block (see Table 1; Lane et al., 2007; Nosek et al., 2014).”
MethodDusend, C., Putter, L. M. S. D., Koster, E. H. W., Dietel, F. A., & Buhlmann, U. (2019) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-018-09991-6
Mühlmann, K., Schreder, G., Nagl, M., & Zenk, L. (2017) · Athens Journal of Mass Media and Communications · doi:10.30958/ajmmc.3.3.1
The long-term effects of teachers’ gender stereotypes on labor outcomes
Martínez, J. J. (2026) · Journal of Development Economics · doi:10.1016/j.jdeveco.2026.103917
To, J., & Axt, J. R. (2026) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2026.104919
Self-citationThe Long-Term Effects of Teachers' Gender Stereotypes on Labor OutcomesPreprint
Martinez, J. (2025) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.5134002
Isaac, M. (2020) · ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition · doi:10.18260/1-2--32678
“1, which comprises average male and female scores (N = 10,000+ responses) [83].”
BackgroundTIARA Coding and Scoring: Instructions for Data Transformation and Analysis
Karandashev, V., & Evans, N. D. (2017) · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-68768-1_3
Metadata
- Authors
- Nosek, B. A., Bar-Anan, Y., Sriram, N., Axt, J., & Greenwald, A. G.
- Affiliations
- Center for Open Science (US)
- University of Virginia (US)
- University of Washington (US)
- Corresponding author
- Nosek, Brian A.
- Venue
- PLoS ONE
- Publisher
- Public Library of Science (PLoS)
- Published
- 2014-12-08
- Volume
- 9
- Issue
- 12
- Pages
- e110938
- ISSN
- 1932-6203 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC4259300
- OpenAlex
- W3124598427
- Cited by
- 179
- References
- 49
- Citations by year
- 2026: 10 · 2025: 15 · 2024: 13 · 2023: 13 · 2022: 19 · 2021: 15 · 2020: 20 · 2019: 9 · 2018: 20 · 2017: 17 · 2016: 13 · 2015: 5 · 2014: 4
- FWCI
- 16.42
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Locations
- PLoS ONE (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion)
- Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Psychological Testing and Assessment
- Keywords
- Brief Implicit Association Test, Implicit Association Test, implicit measures, scoring methods, reaction time (psychology), internal consistency, explicit measures, psychometric properties, response latency, group differences
- MeSH terms
- Attitude, Female, Humans, Male, Psychological Tests, Comprehension
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