Variability in automatic activation as an unobtrusive measure of racial attitudes: A bona fide pipeline?
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Even consciously egalitarian people may hold negative ethnic and racial stereotypes and attitudes of which they may not be fully conscious.
“even consciously egalitarian people may hold negative ethnic and racial stereotypes and attitudes,26–31 of which they may not be fully conscious.”
From Reducing Racial Bias Among Health Care Providers: Lessons from Social-Cognitive Psychology (2007) · cites this paper as [30]
Application of stereotypes by health care providers frequently occurs outside conscious awareness.
“(2) application of such stereotypes frequently occurs outside conscious awareness26–31”
From Reducing Racial Bias Among Health Care Providers: Lessons from Social-Cognitive Psychology (2007) · cites this paper as [30]
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Nature and Operation of Attitudes
Ajzen, I. (2001) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.27 · Cited by 4,321 · see citing works
“Ingenious methods have been developed to take advantage of reaction times to relevant stimuli, and evidence for the validity of these methods is becoming available (see Fazio et al 1995, Greenwald & Banaji 1995, Greenwald et al 1998).”
MethodRepresentativeness revisited: Attribute substitution in intuitive judgment.
Kahneman, D., & Frederick, S. (2002) · Heuristics and Biases · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511808098.004 · Cited by 3,476 · see citing works
Gawronski, B., & Bodenhausen, G. V. (2006) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.5.692 · Cited by 2,598 · see citing works
“, 1998), affective priming (Fazio et al., 1995), semantic priming (Wittenbrink et al.”
BackgroundInfluentialPetty, R. E., Wegener, D. T., & Fabrigar, L. R. (1997) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.48.1.609 · Cited by 2,290 · see citing works
“For example, Fazio et al (1995) developed an unobtrusive measure of racial prejudice based on the automatic attitude activation effect (Fazio et al 1986).”
Slovic, P., Finucane, M., Peters, E., & MacGregor, D. G. (2002) · Heuristics and Biases · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511808098.025 · Cited by 2,349 · see citing works
(2002) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511808098 · Cited by 2,214 · see citing works
Hall, W. J., Chapman, M. V., Lee, K. M., Merino, Y. M., Thomas, T. W., Payne, B. K., Eng, E., Day, S. H., & Coyne-Beasley, T. (2015) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.2015.302903 · Cited by 2,176 · see citing works
“Tests for heterogeneity of effects were not significant (Q[12] = 3.”
BackgroundAttitudes and the Attitude-Behavior Relation: Reasoned and Automatic Processes
Ajzen, I., & Fishbein, M. (2000) · European Review of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/14792779943000116 · Cited by 2,049 · see citing works
The Chicago face database: a free stimulus set of faces and norming data
Ma, D. S., Correll, J., & Wittenbrink, B. (2015) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-014-0532-5 · Cited by 1,788 · see citing works
Smith, E. R., & DeCoster, J. (2000) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr0402_01 · Cited by 1,776 · see citing works
Hofmann, W., Gawronski, B., Gschwendner, T., Le, H., & Schmitt, M. (2005) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167205275613 · Cited by 1,642 · see citing works
“This assumption is most prominently reflected in Fazio’s MODE model (Fazio & Olson, 2003), stating that explicit and implicit measures should be highly correlated unless people are motivated and able to control their responses on the explicit measure (e.g., Banse & Gawronski, 2003; Dunton & Fazio, 1997; Fazio et al.,…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialA unified theory of implicit attitudes, stereotypes, self-esteem, and self-concept.
Greenwald, A. G., Banaji, M. R., Rudman, L. A., Farnham, S. D., Nosek, B. A., & Mellott, D. S. (2002) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.109.1.3 · Cited by 1,559 · see citing works
“The most influential ones had appeared in the 1950s, including Osgood and Tannenbaum’s (1955) congruity theory, Festinger’s (1957) cognitive dissonance theory, and Heider’s (1958) balance theory.”
BackgroundGreen, A. R., Carney, D. R., Pallin, D. J., Ngo, L. H., Raymond, K. L., Iezzoni, L. I., & Banaji, M. R. (2007) · Journal of General Internal Medicine · doi:10.1007/s11606-007-0258-5 · Cited by 1,460 · see citing works
“edu.(20) Although more than 200 studies have employed numerous versions of the IAT, and data from 5 million tests has accumulated from www.”
BackgroundAn inkblot for attitudes: Affect misattribution as implicit measurement.
Payne, B. K., Cheng, C. M., Govorun, O., & Stewart, B. D. (2005) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.89.3.277 · Cited by 1,371 · see citing works
“However, among participants who are not particularly motivated to be unprejudiced, correspondence is more often observed (Banse & Gawronski, 2003; Dunton & Fazio, 1997; Fazio et al., 1995; Payne, 2001).”
BackgroundMethodSocial Cognition: Thinking Categorically about Others
Macrae, C. N., & Bodenhausen, G. V. (2000) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.51.1.93 · Cited by 1,347 · see citing works
“…et al 1997) or the task instructions are framed in such a way that they conceal any associative relationship between the items (Banaji & Hardin 1996; Fazio & Dunton 1997; Fazio et al 1995; Gilbert & Hixon 1991; Kawakami et al 1998; Locke et al 1994; Macrae et al 1997b, 1998b; Spencer et al 1998).”
BackgroundHarvesting implicit group attitudes and beliefs from a demonstration web site.
Nosek, B. A., Banaji, M. R., & Greenwald, A. G. (2002) · Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice · doi:10.1037/1089-2699.6.1.101 · Cited by 1,321 · see citing works
“Recent discussions of the relationship between implicit and explicit social cognition have emphasized dissociations between the two (Fazio, Sanbonmatsu, Powell, & Kardes, 1986; Fazio et al., 1995; Greenwald & Banaji, 1995).”
BackgroundPervasiveness and correlates of implicit attitudes and stereotypes
Nosek, B. A., Smyth, F. L., Hansen, J. J., Devos, T., Lindner, N. M., Ranganath, K. A., Smith, C. T., Olson, K. R., Chugh, D., Greenwald, A. G., et al. (2007) · European Review of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/10463280701489053 · Cited by 1,247 · see citing works
“In any case, a variety of perspectives converge on the notion that because of egalitarian norms, people's reports of social preferences will be weaker than what is revealed by implicit measures like the IAT (Devine, 1989 ; Fazio, Jackson, Dunton, & Williams, 1995 ; Greenwald & Banaji, 1995 ).”
Seeing Black: Race, Crime, and Visual Processing.
Eberhardt, J. L., Goff, P. A., Purdie, V. J., & Davies, P. G. (2004) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.87.6.876 · Cited by 1,208 · see citing works
“Indeed, there are numerous studies demonstrating that Blacks are associated with negatively valenced words and concepts of all types (Dovidio et al., 1997; Fazio et al., 1995; Gaertner & McLaughlin, 1983; Greenwald, McGhee, & Schwartz, 1998).”
BackgroundThe police officer's dilemma: Using ethnicity to disambiguate potentially threatening individuals.
Correll, J., Park, B., Judd, C. M., & Wittenbrink, B. (2002) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.83.6.1314 · Cited by 1,175 · see citing works
“However, it might be the case that the relationship between the cultural stereotype measure and personal prejudice depends on the participant’s level of motivation to control prejudice, again following the theoretical arguments of Fazio et al. (1995) .”
BackgroundInfluentialThe Malleability of Automatic Stereotypes and Prejudice
Blair, I. V. (2002) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr0603_8 · Cited by 1,152 · see citing works
The Single Category Implicit Association Test as a measure of implicit social cognition.
Karpinski, A., & Steinman, R. B. (2006) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.91.1.16 · Cited by 1,108 · see citing works
Social norms and the expression and suppression of prejudice: The struggle for internalization.
Crandall, C. S., Eshleman, A. K., & O’Brien, L. T. (2002) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.82.3.359 · Cited by 1,096 · see citing works
“We have used normative theory to conceptualize the roots of suppression, a phenomenon widely studied and reported (Dunton & Fazio, 1997; Fazio et al., 1995; Gaertner & Dovidio, 1986; Plant & Devine, 1998; Sears, 1998).”
A justification-suppression model of the expression and experience of prejudice.
Crandall, C. S., & Eshleman, A. K. (2003) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.129.3.414 · Cited by 1,090 · see citing works
“Fazio et al. (1995) found with White participants that supraliminal but brief presentation of White faces on a computer screen facilitated response to positive words, whereas Black faces facilitated response to negative words.”
BackgroundMcConnell, A. R., & Leibold, J. M. (2001) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1006/jesp.2000.1470 · Cited by 1,001 · see citing works
“To the ex that explicit measures of prejudice are reactive and su to normative pressures, a lack of correspondence bet implicit and explicit measures of prejudice is not surpris (Dunton & Fazio, 1997; Fazio et al., 1995).”
BackgroundPerformance on Indirect Measures of Race Evaluation Predicts Amygdala Activation
Phelps, E. A., O'Connor, K. J., Cunningham, W. A., Funayama, E. S., Gatenby, J. C., Gore, J. C., & Banaji, M. R. (2000) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/089892900562552 · Cited by 1,001 · see citing works
“Yet such evaluations can affect behavior in subtle and often unintentional ways (see Bargh & Chen, 1997; Fazio et al., 1995).”
BackgroundHilton, J. L., & von Hippel, W. (1996) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.47.1.237 · Cited by 980 · see citing works
Implicit attitude measures: Consistency, stability, and convergent validity
Cunningham, W. A., Preacher, K. J., & Banaji, M. R. (2001) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00328 · Cited by 968 · see citing works
“The results were consistent with previous research measuring race bias with evaluative priming (Dovidio et al., 1986; Fazio et al., 1995; Wittenbrink et al., 1997): Fewer errors were made for the white 1 good (black 1 bad) trials ( M 5 76% correct) than the white 1 bad (black 1 good) trials ( M 5 71% correct), indicat…”
ResultEuropean Review of Social Psychology
Nosek, B. A., Smyth, F. L., Hansen, J. J., Devos, T., Lindner, N. M., Ranganath, K. A., Smith, C. T., Olson, K. R., Chugh, D., Greenwald, A. G., et al. (2001) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/0470013478 · Cited by 974 · see citing works
Bohner, G., & Dickel, N. (2010) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.121208.131609 · Cited by 956 · see citing works
“Although some researchers have viewed implicit measures as a “bona fide pipeline” to the “true” attitude, free from social desirability effects (Fazio et al. 1995), others have pointed out that these measures assess new aspects of attitudes that could not be studied by using self-report measures…”
BackgroundBerinsky, A. J., Margolis, M. F., & Sances, M. W. (2014) · American Journal of Political Science · doi:10.1111/ajps.12081 · Cited by 951 · see citing works
“Previous work (e.g., Fazio et al. 1995) found that these questions can be subject to socially desirable reporting.10 However, we find no difference in the distribution of responses between those who received the Screener and those who did not, nor do we find a difference in the percentage of…”
Math = male, me = female, therefore math ≠ me.
Nosek, B. A., Banaji, M. R., & Greenwald, A. G. (2002) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.83.1.44 · Cited by 971 · see citing works
“Early formulations of the relationship between implicit and explicit social cognition focused on the independence of implicit and explicit preferences, noting the dissociations between the two (Bosson, Swann, & Pennebaker, 2000; Fazio, Jackson, Dunton, & Williams, 1995; Fazio, Sanbonmatsu, Powell, & Kardes, 1986; Gree…”
BackgroundRole congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders.
Eagly, A. H., & Karau, S. J. (2002) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037//0033-295x.109.3.573 · Cited by 7,300 · see citing works
Mind matters: cognitive and physical effects of aging self-stereotypes
Levy, B. R. (2003) · The Journals of Gerontology: Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/58.4.p203 · Cited by 908 · see citing works
Esses, V. M., Jackson, L. M., & Armstrong, T. L. (1998) · Journal of Social Issues · doi:10.1111/j.1540-4560.1998.tb01244.x · Cited by 833 · see citing works
Devos, T., & Banaji, M. R. (2005) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.88.3.447 · Cited by 790 · see citing works
“Previous research has consistently demonstrated automatic or unconscious race preferences: White American individuals display a more negative implicit attitude toward African Americans than toward White Americans (Cunningham et al., 2001; Fazio et al., 1995; Greenwald et al., 1998; Nosek & Banaji, 2001; Nosek et al.,…”
BackgroundResultRelationship orientation as a moderator of the effects of social power.
Chen, S., Lee-Chai, A. Y., & Bargh, J. A. (2001) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.80.2.173 · Cited by 764 · see citing works
Behavioral reasoning theory: Identifying new linkages underlying intentions and behavior
Westaby, J. D. (2005) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2005.07.003 · Cited by 777 · see citing works
Toward a histology of social behavior: Judgmental accuracy from thin slices of the behavioral stream
Ambady, N., Bernieri, F. J., & Richeson, J. A. (2000) · Advances in experimental social psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(00)80006-4 · Cited by 716 · see citing works
Moderators of the Relationship Between Implicit and Explicit Evaluation.
Nosek, B. A. (2005) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.134.4.565 · Cited by 701 · see citing works
“This and related research efforts revealed that evaluative associations can be elicited automatically and are sometimes at odds with respondents’ professed attitudes (Dovidio et al., 1997; Fazio et al., 1995; Greenwald, McGhee, & Schwartz, 1998).”
BackgroundInfluentialSocial Identity Theory's Self-Esteem Hypothesis: A Review and Some Suggestions for Clarification
Rubin, M., & Hewstone, M. (1998) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr0201_3 · Cited by 689 · see citing works
Dunning, D. A., Meyerowitz, J. A., & Holzberg, A. D. (2002) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511808098.020 · Cited by 688 · see citing works
Devine, P. G., Plant, E. A., Amodio, D. M., Harmon-Jones, E., & Vance, S. L. (2002) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.82.5.835 · Cited by 720 · see citing works
“Alternatively, their low levels of race bias may reflect either the absence of strong associations linking Blacks with negative evaluations or the fact that they have developed highly efficient or automatized control mechanisms that prevent the expression of race bias (Monteith, 1993; Moskowitz, Gollwitzer, Wasel, & S…”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialAn Individual Difference Measure of Motivation to Control Prejudiced Reactions
Dunton, B. C., & Fázio, R. H. (1997) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167297233009 · Cited by 683 · see citing works
Self-citationAsendorpf, J. B., Banse, R., & Mücke, D. (2002) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.83.2.380 · Cited by 690 · see citing works
Hofmann, W., Friese, M., & Wiers, R. (2008) · Health Psychology Review · doi:10.1080/17437190802617668 · Cited by 694 · see citing works
“However, there is a striking paucity of research investigating motivation as a potential moderator of the impulse-behavior and reflection-behavior relationship in the health domain (for evidence in the domain of prejudice, see Fazio, Jackson, Dunton, & Williams, 1995 ).”
BackgroundAttitude construction: evaluation in context
Schwarz, N. (2007) · Social Cognition · doi:10.1521/soco.2007.25.5.638 · Cited by 627 · see citing works
van den Bergh, L., Denessen, E., Hornstra, L., Voeten, M., & Holland, R. W. (2010) · American Educational Research Journal · doi:10.3102/0002831209353594 · Cited by 625 · see citing works
Liking Is for Doing: The Effects of Goal Pursuit on Automatic Evaluation.
Ferguson, M. J., & Bargh, J. A. (2004) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.87.5.557 · Cited by 605 · see citing works
The silence of the library: Environment, situational norm, and social behavior.
Aarts, H., & Dijksterhuis, A. (2003) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.84.1.18 · Cited by 624 · see citing works
New Approaches to Understanding Racial Prejudice and Discrimination
Quillian, L. (2006) · Annual Review of Sociology · doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.32.061604.123132 · Cited by 608 · see citing works
Predictive validity of an implicit association test for assessing anxiety.
Egloff, B., & Schmukle, S. C. (2002) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.83.6.1441 · Cited by 629 · see citing works
“Additionally, Fazio et al. (1995) were able to show that a priming measure of prejudice was associated with experimenterrated prejudice during a debriefing procedure.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialImplicit anti-fat bias among health professionals: is anyone immune?
Teachman, B., & Kd, B. (2001) · International Journal of Obesity · doi:10.1038/sj.ijo.0801745 · Cited by 598 · see citing works
Implicit and Explicit Attitudes Toward Female Authority
Rudman, L. A., & Kilianski, S. E. (2000) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167200263001 · Cited by 586 · see citing works
The origins of symbolic racism.
Sears, D. O., & Henry, P. J. (2003) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.85.2.259 · Cited by 584 · see citing works
“Similar accounts of primitive, largely unconscious and automatic negative affects have been presented in connection with implicit or automatic prejudice (see Devine, 1989; Dovidio, Kawakami, Johnson, & Howard, 1997; Fazio et al., 1995).”
BackgroundImplicit social cognition: from measures to mechanisms
Nosek, B. A., Hawkins, C. B., & Frazier, R. S. (2011) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2011.01.005 · Cited by 578 · see citing works
Why can't we just get along? Interpersonal biases and interracial distrust.
Dovidio, J. F., Gaertner, S. E., Kawakami, K., & Hodson, G. (2002) · Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology · doi:10.1037/1099-9809.8.2.88 · Cited by 593 · see citing works
“Consistent with the work of other researchers in this area ( Fazio, Jackson, Dunton, & Williams, 1995 ), we have also found evidence in a series of experiments that implicit and explicit attitudes influence different types of race-relevant behaviors of Whites (Dovidio et al., 1997).”
ResultThe impact of multiculturalism versus color-blindness on racial bias
Richeson, J. A., & Nussbaum, R. J. (2004) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2003.09.002 · Cited by 562 · see citing works
The neuroscience of prejudice and stereotyping
Amodio, D. M. (2014) · Nature reviews. Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nrn3800 · Cited by 569 · see citing works
Kunda, Z., & Spencer, S. J. (2003) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.129.4.522 · Cited by 553 · see citing works
“These include how close to a stereotyped person participants sit (Macrae et al., 1994), how pleasant participants are to a stereotyped person (Fazio et al., 1995), the extent to which participants display nervous nonverbal behaviors when interacting with a stereotyped person (Kawakami et al., 1998;…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialConrey, F. R., Sherman, J. W., Gawronski, B., Hugenberg, K., & Groom, C. J. (2005) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.89.4.469 · Cited by 539 · see citing works
Olson, M. A., & Fázio, R. H. (2004) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.86.5.653 · Cited by 532 · see citing works
“Relatedly, and surprisingly, Blacks do not show an in-group preference on the IAT (Nosek et al., 2002a), a pattern that stands in stark contrast to what has been repeatedly observed on both implicit and explicit measures (Blair, 2001; Dovidio et al., 2001; Fazio et al., 1995).”
BackgroundResultSelf-citationHofmann, W., Rauch, W. A., & Gawronski, B. (2007) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2006.05.004 · Cited by 530 · see citing works
“The obtained results have some resemblance to previous research showing double dissociations in the prediction of spontaneous versus controlled behavior (Dovidio et al., 2002; Dovidio et al., 1997; Fazio et al., 1995; McConnell & Leibold, 2001; Perugini, 2005).”
ResultEconomic Preferences or Attitude Expressions?: An Analysis of Dollar Responses to Public Issues
Kahneman, D. J., Ritov, I., Schkade, D. A., Sherman, S. J., & Varian, H. R. (1999) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-017-1406-8_8 · Cited by 512 · see citing works
Dovidio, J. F., & Gaertner, S. L. (2004) · Advances in Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(04)36001-6 · Cited by 650 · see citing works
Reducing Racial Bias Among Health Care Providers: Lessons from Social-Cognitive Psychology
Burgess, D., van Ryn, M., Dovidio, J., & Saha, S. (2007) · Journal of General Internal Medicine · doi:10.1007/s11606-007-0160-1 · Cited by 495 · see citing works
Brickson, S. (2000) · The Academy of Management Review · doi:10.5465/amr.2000.2791604 · Cited by 556 · see citing works
Implicit Attitudes towards Homosexuality: Reliability, Validity, and Controllability of the IAT
Banse, R., Seise, J., & Zerbes, N. (2001) · Experimental Psychology (formerly Zeitschrift für Experimentelle Psychologie) · doi:10.1026//0949-3946.48.2.145 · Cited by 465 · see citing works
The Flexible Correction Model: The Role of Naive Theories of Bias in Bias Correction
Wegener, D. T., & Petty, R. E. (1997) · Advances in Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(08)60017-9 · Cited by 471 · see citing works
“engaged in the Fazio et al. (1995) priming procedure, which involves presentation of African-American and Caucasian faces as primes during”
MethodFriese, M., Hofmann, W., & Wänke, M. (2008) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1348/014466607x241540 · Cited by 437 · see citing works
“Importantly, up to now researchers put weight on the assumption that implicit and explicit measures predict qualitatively distinct behaviours that can be identified as such from an observer’s perspective (e.g. verbal vs. non-verbal behaviour; Dovidio et al., 1997; Fazio et al., 1995).”
BackgroundStanding up for a change: Reducing bias through interpersonal confrontation.
Czopp, A. M., Monteith, M. J., & Mark, A. Y. (2006) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.90.5.784 · Cited by 465 · see citing works
“vated to avoid being perceived by others as prejudiced ( Fazio, Jackson, Dunton, & Williams, 1995; Plant & Devine, 1998), may be less likely to engage in biased responding in the future to avoid such public dispute or disapproval.”
BackgroundCialdini, R. B., Wosinska, W., Barrett, D. W., Butner, J., & Gornik-Durose, M. (1999) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167299258006 · Cited by 458 · see citing works
Dovidio, J. F., Penner, L. A., Albrecht, T. L., Norton, W. E., Gaertner, S. L., & Shelton, J. N. (2008) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2008.03.019 · Cited by 455 · see citing works
“Thus, the relative impact of implicit and explicit attitudes is a function of the situational context, individuals' motivation and opportunity to engage in deliberative processes, and the nature of the behavioral response (Fazio et al., 1995).”
BackgroundImplicit Measures in Social and Personality Psychology
Gawronski, B., & Houwer, J. D. (2014) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511996481.016 · Cited by 459 · see citing works
Implicit Ingroup Favoritism, Outgroup Favoritism, and Their Behavioral Manifestations
Dasgupta, N. (2004) · Social Justice Research · doi:10.1023/b:sore.0000027407.70241.15 · Cited by 429 · see citing works
The Associative–Propositional Evaluation Model
Gawronski, B., & Bodenhausen, G. V. (2011) · Advances in experimental social psychology · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-385522-0.00002-0 · Cited by 429 · see citing works
Gaertner, S. L., & Dovidio, J. F. (2005) · Journal of Social Issues · doi:10.1111/j.1540-4560.2005.00424.x · Cited by 424 · see citing works
“In particular, we proposed that conscious and unconscious attitudes influence behavior in different ways and under different conditions (Dovidio, Kawakami, & Gaertner, 2002; Dovidio et al., 1997; Fazio et al., 1995).”
BackgroundIncorporating the Irrelevant: Anchors in Judgments of Belief and Value
Chapman, G. B., & Johnson, E. J. (2002) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511808098.008 · Cited by 410 · see citing works
Easier done than undone: Asymmetry in the malleability of implicit preferences.
Gregg, A. P., Seibt, B., & Banaji, M. R. (2006) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.90.1.1 · Cited by 419 · see citing works
“However, performance on an evaluative priming task (cf. Fazio et al., 1995) was found to have been additionally influenced by the face preferences classically conditioned at the outset of the study.”
BackgroundAutomatic associations and discrimination in hiring: Real world evidence
Rooth, D.-O. (2010) · Labour Economics · doi:10.1016/j.labeco.2009.04.005 · Cited by 413 · see citing works
Predictive models of implicit and explicit attitudes
Perugini, M. (2005) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1348/014466604x23491 · Cited by 411 · see citing works
Gender Differences in Automatic In-Group Bias: Why Do Women Like Women More Than Men Like Men?
Rudman, L. A., & Goodwin, S. A. (2004) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.87.4.494 · Cited by 413 · see citing works
When familiarity breeds accuracy: Cultural exposure and facial emotion recognition.
Elfenbein, H. A., & Ambady, N. (2003) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.85.2.276 · Cited by 414 · see citing works
“Research investigating stereotypical attitudes has used facial photographs from different races as a typical prime (Fazio et al., 1995).”
BackgroundClinicians' Implicit Ethnic/Racial Bias and Perceptions of Care Among Black and Latino Patients
Blair, I. V., Steiner, J. F., Fairclough, D. L., Hanratty, R., Price, D. W., Hirsh, H. K., Wright, L. A., Bronsert, M., Karimkhani, E., Magid, D. J., et al. (2013) · The Annals of Family Medicine · doi:10.1370/afm.1442 · Cited by 409 · see citing works
Corrigan, P. W., Watson, A. C., & Miller, F. E. (2006) · Journal of Family Psychology · doi:10.1037/0893-3200.20.2.239 · Cited by 415 · see citing works
Förster, J., Liberman, N., & Friedman, R. (2007) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/1088868307303029 · Cited by 408 · see citing works
The Coevolution of Cultural Groups and Ingroup Favoritism
Efferson, C. M., Lalive, R., & Fehr, E. (2008) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1155805 · Cited by 382 · see citing works
Are “implicit” attitudes unconscious?
Gawronski, B., Hofmann, W., & Wilbur, C. J. (2006) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2005.11.007 · Cited by 401 · see citing works
Automatic Preference for White Americans: Eliminating the Familiarity Explanation
Dasgupta, N., McGhee, D. E., Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. R. (2000) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1006/jesp.1999.1418 · Cited by 389 · see citing works
“The overall correlation between implicit and explicit attitude measures (average r ϭ .12) is consistent with previous research (e.g., Devine, 1989; Dovidio et al., 1997; Fazio et al., 1995; Greenwald et al., 1998; but see Lepore & Brown, 1997; Wittenbrink et al., 1997).”
ResultBounded Ethicality as a Psychological Barrier to Recognizing Conflicts of Interest
Chugh, D., Bazerman, M. H., & Banaji, M. R. (2005) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511610332.006 · Cited by 399 · see citing works
Prelude to Passion: Limbic Activation by “Unseen” Drug and Sexual Cues
Childress, A. R., Ehrman, R. N., Wang, Z., Li, Y., Sciortino, N., Hakun, J. G., Jens, W., Suh, J. J., Listerud, J., Marquez, K., et al. (2008) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0001506 · Cited by 395 · see citing works
Sloman, S. A. (2002) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511808098.024 · Cited by 407 · see citing works
The development of implicit intergroup cognition
Dunham, Y. C., Baron, A. S., & Banaji, M. R. (2008) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2008.04.006 · Cited by 391 · see citing works
“For example, we know that attitudes, stereotypes and group identities can operate in a nonconscious or ‘implicit’ form [1‐4] and that these mental representations are distinguishable from ‘explicit’, conscious cognition at both the behavioral [ 4 ,5] and neural levels [6,7].”
Racial Resentment and White Opposition to Race‐Conscious Programs: Principles or Prejudice?
Feldman, S., & Huddy, L. (2004) · American Journal of Political Science · doi:10.1111/j.0092-5853.2005.00117.x · Cited by 391 · see citing works
“A number of studies have measured reaction time latencies in judgments of the valence of racial and nonracial words or decisions that a string of positive, negative, or neutral letters constitute a word after exposure to a subconscious racial or nonracial prime (Fazio et al. 1997; Greenwald, McGhee, and Schwartz 1998;…”
BackgroundAlief in Action (and Reaction)
Gendler, T. S. (2008) · Mind & Language · doi:10.1111/j.1468-0017.2008.00352.x · Cited by 392 · see citing works
“…from memory on encountering a Black person ’ and some portion who ‘ have no qualms about their experiencing such negativity or about expressing it ’ , ( Fazio et al. , 1995 , p. 1025) many American Whites seem to be what Jack Dovidio calls ‘ aversive racists ’ — people who consciously endorse…”
BackgroundToward a formalized account of attitudes: The Causal Attitude Network (CAN) model.
Dalege, J., Borsboom, D., van Harreveld, F., van den Berg, H., Conner, M. T., & van der Maas, H. L. J. (2015) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/a0039802 · Cited by 376 · see citing works
Petty, R. E., Briñol, P., & DeMarree, K. G. (2007) · Social Cognition · doi:10.1521/soco.2007.25.5.657 · Cited by 385 · see citing works
Melnikoff, D. E., & Bargh, J. A. (2018) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2018.02.001 · Cited by 388 · see citing works
“, the unintentional activation of racially biased attitudes) occurred in 1995 [64], and by 1999 researchers started referring to this phenomenon as unconscious bias [65].”
Zestcott, C. A., Blair, I. V., & Stone, J. (2016) · Group Processes & Intergroup Relations · doi:10.1177/1368430216642029 · Cited by 381 · see citing works
“This finding is consistent with laboratory research that shows stronger associations between implicit bias and nonverbal behavior than explicit statements or judgments (Dovidio et al., 2002; Fazio et al., 1995).”
Third wave positive psychology: broadening towards complexity
Lomas, T., Waters, L. E., Williams, P., Oades, L. G., & Kern, M. L. (2020) · The Journal of Positive Psychology · doi:10.1080/17439760.2020.1805501 · Cited by 402 · see citing works
“, 1998), the evaluative priming task (Fazio et al., 1995), the extrinsic affective Simon task (De Houwer, 2003), the go/no-go 668 T.”
BackgroundMethodThe Nature of Contemporary Prejudice: Insights from Aversive Racism
Pearson, A. R., Dovidio, J. F., & Gaertner, S. L. (2009) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2009.00183.x · Cited by 375 · see citing works
- Authors
- Fazio, R. H., Jackson, J. R., Dunton, B. C., & Williams, C. J.
- Venue
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
- Published
- 1995-12
- Volume
- 69
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 1013-1027
- ISSN
- 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1315
- OpenAlex
- W4240262739
- Cited by
- 1,793
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 12 · 2025: 38 · 2024: 56 · 2023: 55 · 2022: 57 · 2021: 79 · 2020: 80 · 2019: 86 · 2018: 64 · 2017: 86 · 2016: 76 · 2015: 84 · 2014: 83 · 2013: 70 · 2012: 80
- FWCI
- 42.74
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Racial and Ethnic Identity Research
- Keywords
- automatic activation, racial attitudes, implicit attitudes, unobtrusive measurement, measurement reliability, Implicit Association Test
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