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Understanding and Using the Brief Implicit Association Test: Recommended Scoring Procedures
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Abstract
A brief version of the Implicit Association Test (BIAT) has been introduced.The present research identified analytical best practices for overall psychometric performance of the BIAT.In 7 studies and multiple replications, we investigated analytic practices with several evaluation criteria: sensitivity to detecting known effects and group differences, internal consistency, relations with implicit measures of the same topic, relations with explicit measures of the same topic and other criterion variables, and resistance to an extraneous influence of average response time.The data transformation algorithms D outperformed other approaches.This replicates and extends the strong prior performance of D compared to conventional analytic techniques.We conclude with recommended analytic practices for standard use of the BIAT. Understanding and Using the Brief Implicit Association Test: I. Recommended Scoring ProceduresEven the most brilliant research ideas can flounder if data collection procedures and data analytic strategies applied in the pursuit of these ideas are suboptimal.Research efficiency, the knowledge gained in proportion to resources invested, can be improved by maximizing the quality of procedural and analytical methods.Numerous paradigms in mental chronometry, such as Stroop and lexical-decision tasks, define constructs derived from contrasting response latencies between performance conditions [1].The Implicit Association Test (IAT) [2] is a
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“Una limitación general de los auto-reportes es que la actitud u otra medida consciente reportada puede ser exagerada o suprimida de manera intencional.”
From El estudio de la polarización afectiva: una mirada metodológica (2022) · cites this paper as Nosek et al., 2014
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“Esto es particularmente relevante en temas sensibles, en los que existe mucha presión social para no expresar públicamente ciertas opiniones o actitudes, como puede ser, por ejemplo, la discriminación racial (Nosek et al., 2014).”
From El estudio de la polarización afectiva: una mirada metodológica (2022) · cites this paper as Nosek et al., 2014
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Citations
Cites
Society and the Adolescent Self-Image
Lee, D. J. (1969) · Sociology · doi:10.1177/003803856900300250 · Cited by 22,796 · cited 2×
“Self-reported attitudes and individual difference measures Each participant received a random selection of self-report measures including (a) 7-point relative preference for Democrats compared to Republicans, White people compared to Black people, and Self compared to Other; (b) 11-point warmth ratings for each of tho…”
Society and the adolescent self-image
Stoodley, B. H., & Rosenberg, M. (1966) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.2307/2091308 · Cited by 16,818
Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: the implicit association test
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“Also, the order of measurement blocks is a well-known influence on response latency measures like the IAT [2, 24].”
BackgroundSelf-citationUnderstanding and using the Implicit Association Test: I. An improved scoring algorithm.
Greenwald, A. G., Nosek, B. A., & Banaji, M. R. (2003) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.85.2.197 · Cited by 5,815 · cited 10×
“Assessments that minimize random error in measurement of height and weight will maximize their correlation, getting it closest to the true correlation (assuming that the assessments are not influenced by the same extraneous influence; see also [7]).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationUnderstanding and using the Implicit Association Test: III. Meta-analysis of predictive validity.
Greenwald, A. G., Poehlman, T. A., Uhlmann, E. L., & Banaji, M. R. (2009) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0015575 · Cited by 3,257 · cited 1×
“Also, the BIAT has found application in many studies already [10–13] The present studies analyzed data from a very large data collection in a study that administrated a random selection of measures of attitudes regarding race, politics and the self from a large pool of possible indirect and direct attitude measures [1…”
MethodSelf-citationFazio, R. H., Jackson, J. R., Dunton, B. C., & Williams, C. J. (1995) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.69.6.1013 · Cited by 1,793 · cited 1×
“Other implicit measures In addition to Brief IATs measuring the three topics of interest, participants were randomly assigned to complete one or more of seven other implicit measures about the same topics – the IAT, Go/No-go Association Task (GNAT) [27], single-target (ST-IAT) [28], Sorting Paired Features [29], Evalu…”
MethodAn inkblot for attitudes: Affect misattribution as implicit measurement.
Payne, B. K., Cheng, C. M., Govorun, O., & Stewart, B. D. (2005) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.89.3.277 · Cited by 1,371 · cited 1×
“Other implicit measures In addition to Brief IATs measuring the three topics of interest, participants were randomly assigned to complete one or more of seven other implicit measures about the same topics – the IAT, Go/No-go Association Task (GNAT) [27], single-target (ST-IAT) [28], Sorting Paired Features [29], Evalu…”
MethodHarvesting implicit group attitudes and beliefs from a demonstration web site.
Nosek, B. A., Banaji, M. R., & Greenwald, A. G. (2002) · Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice · doi:10.1037/1089-2699.6.1.101 · Cited by 1,321 · cited 1×
“Both elicit strong effects favoring whites to blacks and self to others respectively [15–17].”
BackgroundSelf-citationPervasiveness and correlates of implicit attitudes and stereotypes
Nosek, B. A., Smyth, F. L., Hansen, J. J., Devos, T., Lindner, N. M., Ranganath, K. A., Smith, C. T., Olson, K. R., Chugh, D., Greenwald, A. G., et al. (2007) · European Review of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/10463280701489053 · Cited by 1,247 · cited 1×
“Likewise, Black and White people have different implicit racial attitudes – each more inclined to show positivity toward their own racial group, though Whites more so – providing another group difference criterion [16].”
BackgroundSelf-citationUnderstanding and Using the Implicit Association Test: II. Method Variables and Construct Validity
Nosek, B. A., Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. R. (2004) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167204271418 · Cited by 1,216 · cited 1×
“Also, the order of measurement blocks is a well-known influence on response latency measures like the IAT [2, 24].”
BackgroundSelf-citationStalking the perfect measure of implicit self-esteem: The blind men and the elephant revisited?
Bosson, J. K., Jr. Swann William, B., & Pennebaker, J. W. (2000) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.79.4.631 · Cited by 1,130 · cited 1×
“In particular, the self-esteem BIAT showed weak relations with other implicit measures and with the criterion variables for both good and bad-focal blocks [14;37].”
BackgroundNosek, B. A., & Banaji, M. R. (2001) · Social Cognition · doi:10.1521/soco.19.6.625.20886 · Cited by 1,110
Self-citationThe Single Category Implicit Association Test as a measure of implicit social cognition.
Karpinski, A., & Steinman, R. B. (2006) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.91.1.16 · Cited by 1,108 · cited 1×
“Other implicit measures In addition to Brief IATs measuring the three topics of interest, participants were randomly assigned to complete one or more of seven other implicit measures about the same topics – the IAT, Go/No-go Association Task (GNAT) [27], single-target (ST-IAT) [28], Sorting Paired Features [29], Evalu…”
MethodPrejudice, Discrimination, and Racism
Dovidio, J., & Gaertner, S. (1986) · SAGE Publications Ltd eBooks · doi:10.4135/9781446217566.n6 · Cited by 1,088
Lewis, T. H. (1997) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.1997.03540400078041 · Cited by 1,004
From self-conceptions to self-worth: On the sources and structure of global self-esteem.
Pelham, B. W., & Swann, W. B. (1989) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.57.4.672 · Cited by 832
Moderators of the Relationship Between Implicit and Explicit Evaluation.
Nosek, B. A. (2005) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.134.4.565 · Cited by 701 · cited 1×
“Nevertheless, it is well established that these constructs are related [20].”
BackgroundSelf-citationvon Hippel, W., Sekaquaptewa, D., & Vargas, P. T. (2008) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203809884 · Cited by 682
Implicit social cognition: from measures to mechanisms
Nosek, B. A., Hawkins, C. B., & Frazier, R. S. (2011) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2011.01.005 · Cited by 578 · cited 1×
“Dual-process and dual-system perspectives in attitudes research presume that implicit and explicit attitudes are distinct constructs – the former measured indirectly with procedures like the BIAT, the latter measured directly with selfreport procedures (see [5-6] for a review).”
MethodFrom self-conceptions to self-worth: On the sources and structure of global self-esteem.
Pelham, B. W., & Swann, W. B. (1989) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.57.4.672 · Cited by 558 · cited 1×
“Self-reported attitudes and individual difference measures Each participant received a random selection of self-report measures including (a) 7-point relative preference for Democrats compared to Republicans, White people compared to Black people, and Self compared to Other; (b) 11-point warmth ratings for each of tho…”
The Brief Implicit Association Test
Sriram, N., & Greenwald, A. G. (2009) · Experimental Psychology (formerly Zeitschrift für Experimentelle Psychologie) · doi:10.1027/1618-3169.56.4.283 · Cited by 555 · cited 8×
“Sriram and Greenwald [8] observed that the Brief IAT showed stronger construct validity for response blocks when good was focal compared to when bad was focal.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialSelf-citationUnderlying Processes in the Implicit Association Test: Dissociating Salience From Associations.
Rothermund, K., & Wentura, D. (2004) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.133.2.139 · Cited by 449 · cited 1×
“Salience asymmetries are a potential influence on IAT effects [39–41], and could likewise influence BIAT effects.”
BackgroundA Multitrait-Multimethod Validation of the Implicit Association Test
Nosek, B. A., & Smyth, F. L. (2007) · Experimental Psychology (formerly Zeitschrift für Experimentelle Psychologie) · doi:10.1027/1618-3169.54.1.14 · Cited by 427 · cited 2×
“Separate evidence is required to justify the interpretation of the measures as assessments of distinct constructs (for more in-depth treatment of this topic see ([21], [22]).”
BackgroundSelf-citationA comparative investigation of seven indirect attitude measures
Bar‐Anan, Y., & Nosek, B. A. (2013) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-013-0410-6 · Cited by 387
Self-citationMeyer, D. E., Osman, A. M., Irwin, D. E., & Yantis, S. (1988) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/0301-0511(88)90013-0 · Cited by 355
Why positive information is processed faster: The density hypothesis.
Unkelbach, C., Fiedler, K., Bayer, M., Stegmüller, M., & Danner, D. (2008) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.95.1.36 · Cited by 327 · cited 1×
“Unkelbach and colleagues [38] proposed that positive information is more similar to other positive information and is more strongly associated with other positive information, in comparison to the similarity and association that negative information share with other negative information [38].”
BackgroundSocial Psychology and the Unconscious: The Automaticity of Higher Mental Processes
Bargh, J. (2013) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203783016 · Cited by 324
Method-Specific Variance in the Implicit Association Test.
Mierke, J., & Klauer, K. C. (2003) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.85.6.1180 · Cited by 281 · cited 1×
“With the IAT, D reduces the impact of extraneous influences like average response latency [25–26], and increases sensitivity to detecting relations with known covariates [7].”
BackgroundRanganath, K. A., Smith, C. T., & Nosek, B. A. (2008) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2006.12.008 · Cited by 254 · cited 1×
“Other implicit measures In addition to Brief IATs measuring the three topics of interest, participants were randomly assigned to complete one or more of seven other implicit measures about the same topics – the IAT, Go/No-go Association Task (GNAT) [27], single-target (ST-IAT) [28], Sorting Paired Features [29], Evalu…”
MethodSelf-citationApparent Universality of Positive Implicit Self-Esteem
Yamaguchi, S., Greenwald, A. G., Banaji, M. R., Murakami, F., Chen, D. L., Shiomura, K., Kobayashi, C., Cai, H., & Krendl, A. C. (2007) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01928.x · Cited by 222
Self-citationThe Sorting Paired Features Task
Bar‐Anan, Y., Nosek, B. A., & Vianello, M. (2009) · Experimental Psychology (formerly Zeitschrift für Experimentelle Psychologie) · doi:10.1027/1618-3169.56.5.329 · Cited by 102 · cited 1×
“Other implicit measures In addition to Brief IATs measuring the three topics of interest, participants were randomly assigned to complete one or more of seven other implicit measures about the same topics – the IAT, Go/No-go Association Task (GNAT) [27], single-target (ST-IAT) [28], Sorting Paired Features [29], Evalu…”
MethodSelf-citationAlienable Speech: Ideological Variations in the Application of Free‐Speech Principles
Lindner, N. M., & Nosek, B. A. (2009) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9221.2008.00681.x · Cited by 90 · cited 1×
“The third topic – political attitudes – is polarized with liberals or Democrats preferring Democrats and conservatives or Republicans preferring Republicans, even implicitly [18–19].”
BackgroundSelf-citationCai, H., Sriram, N., Greenwald, A. G., & McFarland, S. G. (2004) · Social Cognition · doi:10.1521/soco.22.6.673.54821 · Cited by 85
Self-citationRüsch, N., Todd, A. R., Bodenhausen, G. V., Olschewski, M., & Corrigan, P. W. (2009) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2009.10.002 · Cited by 69
Faulty assumptions: A comment on Blanton, Jaccard, Gonzales, and Christie (2006)
Nosek, B. A., & Sriram, N. (2006) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2006.10.018 · Cited by 55
Self-citationDoes the compatibility effect in the race Implicit Association Test reflect familiarity or affect?
Kinoshita, S., & Peek-O’Leary, M. (2005) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/bf03193786 · Cited by 54
Nosek, B. A., Hawkins, C. B., & Frazier, R. S. (2012) · SAGE Publications Ltd eBooks · doi:10.4135/9781446247631.n3 · Cited by 53 · cited 1×
“Dual-process and dual-system perspectives in attitudes research presume that implicit and explicit attitudes are distinct constructs – the former measured indirectly with procedures like the BIAT, the latter measured directly with selfreport procedures (see [5-6] for a review).”
MethodSelf-citationVirtue or Pretense? Looking behind Self-Declared Innocence in Doping
Petróczi, A., Aidman, E., Hussain, I., Deshmukh, N., Nepusz, T., Uvacsek, M., Tóth, M., Barker, J., & Naughton, D. P. (2010) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0010457 · Cited by 52
Rapid Assimilation: Automatically Integrating New Information with Existing Beliefs
Smith, C. T., Ratliff, K. A., & Nosek, B. A. (2012) · Social Cognition · doi:10.1521/soco.2012.30.2.199 · Cited by 40 · cited 1×
“The third topic – political attitudes – is polarized with liberals or Democrats preferring Democrats and conservatives or Republicans preferring Republicans, even implicitly [18–19].”
BackgroundSelf-citationGod and Country: The Partisan Psychology of the Presidency, Religion, and Nation
Sheets, P., Domke, D., & Greenwald, A. G. (2011) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9221.2010.00820.x · Cited by 31
Self-citationCorrelational biases in mean response latency differences
Sriram, N., Greenwald, A. G., & Nosek, B. A. (2009) · Statistical Methodology · doi:10.1016/j.stamet.2009.10.004 · Cited by 27 · cited 3×
“In addition, there is potential for further developments in improving research efficiency with optimal algorithms through the creation and refinement of new scoring methods and simulations [23;43].”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationIt’s Brief But Is It Better? An Evaluation of the Brief Implicit Association Test
Rothermund, K., & Wentura, D. (2010) · Experimental Psychology (formerly Zeitschrift für Experimentelle Psychologie) · doi:10.1027/1618-3169/a000060 · Cited by 23
Bar-Anan, Y., & Nosek, B. A. (2009) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-012373873-8.00039-6 · Cited by 20
Self-citationProcessing fluency as a predictor of salience asymmetries in the Implicit Association Test
Chang, B. P. I., & Mitchell, C. J. (2009) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1080/17470210802651737 · Cited by 19
Scale Invariant Contrasts of Response Latency DistributionsPreprint
Sriram, N., Nosek, B. A., & Greenwald, A. G. (2013) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2213910 · Cited by 18
Self-citation
Research works printed but not linked: 1
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
Reducing implicit racial preferences: I. A comparative investigation of 17 interventions.
Lai, C. K., Marini, M., Lehr, S. A., Cerruti, C., Shin, J.-E. L., Joy-Gaba, J. A., Ho, A. K., Teachman, B. A., Wojcik, S. P., Koleva, S. P., et al. (2014) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/a0036260 · Cited by 719
“For Study 3, about half the participants were randomly assigned to complete the race Multi-Category Implicit Association Test (MC-IAT; Nosek et al., 2014).”
Self-citationPeterson, E., Rubie-Davies, C., Osborne, D., & Sibley, C. (2016) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2016.01.010 · Cited by 274
The Rules of Implicit Evaluation by Race, Religion, and Age
Axt, J. R., Ebersole, C. R., & Nosek, B. A. (2014) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797614543801 · Cited by 169
Self-citationTowards greater understanding of addiction stigma: Intersectionality with race/ethnicity and gender
Kulesza, M., Matsuda, M., Ramirez, J. J., Werntz, A. J., Teachman, B. A., & Lindgren, K. P. (2016) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2016.10.020 · Cited by 188
“Scoring procedures adhered to the recommendations by Greenwald and colleagues (Greenwald et al., 2003; Nosek et al., 2012).”
MethodGender differences in implicit and explicit personality traitsPreprint
Vianello, M., Schnabel, K., Sriram, N., & Nosek, B. A. (2013) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2249080 · Cited by 122
“), which is computed as the difference between mean latencies of the two BIAT blocks divided by the standard deviation of latencies in the two blocks (Nosek et al., 2013).”
Self-citation
Metadata
- Authors
- Nosek, B. A., Bar-Anan, Y., Sriram, N., Axt, J., & Greenwald, A. G.
- Affiliations
- Center for Open Science (US)
- University of Virginia (US)
- University of Washington (US)
- Corresponding author
- Nosek, Brian A.
- Venue
- PLoS ONE
- Publisher
- Public Library of Science (PLoS)
- Published
- 2014-12-08
- Volume
- 9
- Issue
- 12
- Pages
- e110938
- ISSN
- 1932-6203 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC4259300
- OpenAlex
- W3124598427
- Cited by
- 179
- References
- 49
- Citations by year
- 2026: 10 · 2025: 15 · 2024: 13 · 2023: 13 · 2022: 19 · 2021: 15 · 2020: 20 · 2019: 9 · 2018: 20 · 2017: 17 · 2016: 13 · 2015: 5 · 2014: 4
- FWCI
- 16.42
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Locations
- PLoS ONE (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion)
- Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Psychological Testing and Assessment
- Keywords
- Brief Implicit Association Test, Implicit Association Test, implicit measures, scoring methods, reaction time (psychology), internal consistency, explicit measures, psychometric properties, response latency, group differences
- MeSH terms
- Attitude, Female, Humans, Male, Psychological Tests, Comprehension
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