The magnitude of sex differences in verbal episodic memory increases with social progress: Data from 54 countries across 40 years
Open accessAbstract
Sex differences in episodic memory have been reported. We investigate (1) the existence of sex differences in verbal and other episodic memory tasks in 54 countries, and (2) the association between the time- and country-specific social progress indicators (a) female to male ratio in education and labor force participation, (b) population education and employment, and (c) GDP per capita, and magnitude of sex differences in verbal episodic memory tasks. Data were retrieved from 612 studies, published 1973-2013. Results showed that females outperformed (Cohen's d > 0) males in verbal (42 out of 45 countries) and other (28 out of 45 countries) episodic memory tasks. Although all three social progress indicators were, separately, positively associated with the female advantage in verbal episodic memory performance, only population education and employment remained significant when considering the social indicators together. Results suggest that women's verbal episodic memory performance benefits more than men's from education and employment.
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Higher living conditions are associated with smaller sex differences in cognitive tasks in which there is an overall male advantage (e.g., numeracy).
“For example, we have reported that for cognitive performance, higher living conditions are associated with larger sex differences in cognitive tasks in which there is an overall female advantage (e.g., episodic memory) and smaller in those in which there is an overall male advantage (e.g., numeracy; Asperholm, Nagar, et al., 2019; Weber et al., 2014).”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Asperholm, Nagar, et al., 2019
The Introduction (page not provided) reports a study in which boys’ mathematics advantage disappeared in the most gender-equal countries, supporting the numeracy example. But it also describes mixed findings, including larger male advantages in some spatial tasks in more gender-equal societies. The paper therefore does not support the broader pattern asserted for male-advantaged cognitive tasks. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredFor Episodic memory, sex differences favoring women appear to be larger in countries with higher living conditions (Asperholm, Nagar, et al., 2019; Bonsang et al., 2017; Weber et al., 2017), although one study that examined object-location memory did not find such an association (Silverman et al., 2007).
“For Episodic memory, sex differences favoring women appear to be larger in countries with higher living conditions (Asperholm, Nagar, et al., 2019; Bonsang et al., 2017; Weber et al., 2017), although one study that examined object-location memory did not find such an association (Silverman et al., 2007).”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Asperholm, Nagar, et al., 2019
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Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredHigher living conditions are associated with larger sex differences in cognitive tasks in which there is an overall female advantage (e.g., episodic memory).
“For example, we have reported that for cognitive performance, higher living conditions are associated with larger sex differences in cognitive tasks in which there is an overall female advantage (e.g., episodic memory) and smaller in those in which there is an overall male advantage (e.g., numeracy; Asperholm, Nagar, et al., 2019; Weber et al., 2014).”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Asperholm, Nagar, et al., 2019
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- Authors
- Asperholm, M., Nagar, S., Dekhtyar, S., & Herlitz, A.
- Affiliations
- Karolinska Institutet (SE)
- Monash University (AU)
- Corresponding author
- Asperholm, Martin
- Venue
- PLOS ONE
- Publisher
- Public Library of Science (PLoS)
- Published
- 2019-04-22
- Volume
- 14
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- e0214945
- ISSN
- 1932-6203 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC6476491
- OpenAlex
- W2941746392
- Cited by
- 54
- References
- 30
- Citations by year
- 2026: 6 · 2025: 9 · 2024: 3 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 7 · 2021: 11 · 2020: 9 · 2019: 4
- FWCI
- 4.51
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Update notices
- correction (2019-05-13)
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- PLoS ONE (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- Swedish Research Council (721-2014-2241)
- Swedish Council for Working Life and Social Research (2010-0705)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Sex and Gender in Healthcare
- Keywords
- sex differences, verbal episodic memory, social progress, female advantage, labor force participation, GDP per capita, cross-national comparison, cognitive performance
- MeSH terms
- Cognition, Female, Humans, Male, Retrospective Studies, Sex Characteristics, Socioeconomic Factors, Memory, Episodic
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