Magnitude of sex differences in spatial abilities: a meta-analysis and consideration of critical variables
Abstract
In recent years, the magnitude, consistency, and stability across time of cognitive sex differences have been questioned. The present study examined these issues in the context of spatial abilities. A meta-analysis of 286 effect sizes from a variety of spatial ability measures was conducted. Effect sizes were partitioned by the specific test used and by a number of variables related to the experimental procedure in order to achieve homogeneity. Results showed that sex differences are significant in several tests but that some intertest differences exist. Partial support was found for the notion that the magnitude of sex differences has decreased in recent years. Finally, it was found that the age of emergence of sex differences depends on the test used. Results are discussed with regard to their implications for the study of sex differences in spatial abilities.
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For the new analyses, there were no systematic effects pointing in any direction among the three studies investigated (Nazareth et al., 2019; Voyer et al., 1995, 2017).
“For the new analyses, there were no systematic effects pointing in any direction among the three studies investigated (Nazareth et al., 2019; Voyer et al., 1995, 2017).”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Voyer et al., 1995
On average, males outperform females on visual-spatial tasks starting as early as 3 years of age, with Cohen's d = 0.37.
“For example, results from a meta-analysis suggest that, on average, males outperform females on visual-spatial tasks starting as early as 3 years of age, suggesting that boys ' advantage in this area is not due to differences in life experience alone (Cohen ' s d ¼ 0.37; Robinson et al., 1996; Voyer et al., 1995).”
From Gender and Education (2015) · cites this paper as Voyer et al., 1995
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“[145] showed that on the “purest” spatial measures, such as rotating an imaginary object or shooting at a moving rather than a stationary target, the mean sex difference approaches 1 SD.”
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- Authors
- Voyer, D., Voyer, S., & Bryden, M. P.
- Affiliations
- St. Francis Xavier University (CA)
- ORCID
- Voyer, Daniel
- Venue
- Psychological Bulletin
- Published
- 1995-03
- Volume
- 117
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 250-270
- ISSN
- 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1455
- OpenAlex
- W2068891585
- Cited by
- 2,868
- References
- 1
- Citations by year
- 2026: 68 · 2025: 67 · 2024: 88 · 2023: 82 · 2022: 109 · 2021: 112 · 2020: 207 · 2019: 153 · 2018: 153 · 2017: 130 · 2016: 166 · 2015: 137 · 2014: 117 · 2013: 144 · 2012: 119
- FWCI
- 121.51
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Automotive Engineering › Spatial Cognition and Navigation
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Cognitive and developmental aspects of mathematical skills
- Keywords
- sex differences, spatial ability, cognitive sex differences, temporal stability, spatial ability test
- MeSH terms
- Aptitude, Discrimination Learning, Female, Humans, Male, Neuropsychological Tests, Orientation, Pattern Recognition, Visual, Psychometrics, Sex Characteristics, Space Perception, Bias
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