Cross-national patterns of gender differences in mathematics: A meta-analysis.

Else-Quest, Nicole M.; Hyde, Janet Shibley; Linn, Marcia C.

doi:10.1037/a0018053

Cited by 1,630Education, Achievement, and GiftednessCareer Development and DiversityCognitive and developmental aspects of mathematical skills

Cross-national patterns of gender differences in mathematics: A meta-analysis.

Else-Quest, Nicole M., Hyde, Janet Shibley, Linn, Marcia C.·2010·Psychological Bulletin

DOI 10.1037/a0018053

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Abstract

A gender gap in mathematics achievement persists in some nations but not in others. In light of the underrepresentation of women in careers in science, technology, mathematics, and engineering, increasing research attention is being devoted to understanding gender differences in mathematics achievement, attitudes, and affect. The gender stratification hypothesis maintains that such gender differences are closely related to cultural variations in opportunity structures for girls and women. We meta-analyzed 2 major international data sets, the 2003 Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study and the Programme for International Student Assessment, representing 493,495 students 14-16 years of age, to estimate the magnitude of gender differences in mathematics achievement, attitudes, and affect across 69 nations throughout the world. Consistent with the gender similarities hypothesis, all of the mean effect sizes in mathematics achievement were very small (d < 0.15); however, national effect sizes showed considerable variability (ds = -0.42 to 0.40). Despite gender similarities in achievement, boys reported more positive math attitudes and affect (ds = 0.10 to 0.33); national effect sizes ranged from d = -0.61 to 0.89. In contrast to those of previous tests of the gender stratification hypothesis, our results point to specific domains of gender equity responsible for gender gaps in math. Gender equity in school enrollment, women's share of research jobs, and women's parl…

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Evidence for social-structural theory exists for several psychological gender differences, including mate preferences, mathematics performance, and some aspects of sexuality.
“Evidence for this theory exists for several psychological gender differences, including mate preferences, mathematics performance, and some aspects of sexuality”
From Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms (2017) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2010
Other studies have found smaller gender differences in nations with more gender inequality for outcomes such as self-reports of personality traits and attitudes about mathematics.
“However, other studies have found smaller gender differences in nations with more gender inequality. This pattern has been found for outcomes such as self-reports of personality traits and attitudes about mathematics”
From Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms (2017) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2010
The Hedges and Nowell strategy has been used in other meta-analyses on gender differences in cognitive abilities.
“The Hedges and Nowell strategy has since been used in other meta-analyses on gender differences in cognitive abilities”
From Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms (2017) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2010
For objective measures such as mathematics performance or ratings of others such as mate preferences, the gender gap is smaller in more equitable nations.
“For objective measures such as mathematics performance, or for ratings of others such as mate preferences, the gender gap is smaller in more equitable nations (e.g., Else-Quest et al., 2010; Zentner & Mitura, 2012).”
From Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms (2017) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2010
In general, males performed at a higher level in Math, and this holds true for both young and old, although sex differences are lacking in data from TIMSS.
“In general, males performed at a higher level in Math, and this holds true for both young and old (Dickerson et al., 2015; Else-Quest et al., 2010; Marks, 2008; Stoet & Geary, 2013, 2015; Tao & Michalopoulos, 2018; van Hek et al., 2017; Weber et al., 2014), although sex differences are lacking in data from TIMSS (Else-Quest et al., 2010).”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2010

The results of Else-Quest et al. (2010) show that the nonsignificant overall sex difference becomes a female advantage in countries with higher living conditions.
“Hence, the larger effect in Else-Quest et al. (2010) indicates that the nonsignificant overall sex difference becomes a female advantage in countries with higher living conditions.”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2010
Females reported higher levels of internalizing emotions such as guilt, shame, crying, and fear than males, with SMDs of 0.12-1.11.
“Regarding Negative emotions, females reported higher levels of internalizing emotions, such as guilt, shame, crying, and fear (SMDs = 0.12–1.11; Chaplin & Aldao, 2013; Else-Quest et al., 2010; Fischer et al., 2004; van Hemert et al., 2011)”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2010
Males show higher Self-concept STEM than females, with SMDs of 0.10-0.33.
“Considering both the old analyses and new analyses, we found that males show higher Self-concept STEM (SMDs = 0.10–0.33; Else-Quest et al., 2010; Goldman & Penner, 2016; Huang, 2013; Stoet & Geary, 2018).”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2010
In old analyses, 13 analyses indicated that sex differences in Self-concept STEM are smaller in societies with higher living conditions.
“By contrast, there are 13 analyses in the old analyses that indicated that these sex differences are smaller (Else-Quest et al., 2010)”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2010
In old analyses using PISA or TIMSS, 19 analyses showed associations suggesting that sex differences in Self-concept STEM are larger in societies with higher living conditions.
“there are 19 analyses in the old analyses that showed associations suggesting that sex differences are larger in societies with higher living conditions (Else-Quest et al., 2010; Goldman & Penner, 2016; Stoet & Geary, 2018).”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Else-Quest et al., 2010

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Authors: Else-Quest, N. M., Hyde, J. S., & Linn, M. C.
Affiliations: Villanova University (US)
University of Wisconsin–Madison (US)
University of California, Berkeley (US)
ORCID: Else-Quest, Nicole M.
Hyde, Janet Shibley
Linn, Marcia C.
Venue: Psychological Bulletin
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 2010-01
Volume: 136
Issue: 1
Pages: 103-127
ISSN: 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
1939-1455
DOI: 10.1037/a0018053
OpenAlex: W2012805784
Cited by: 1,630
References: 3
Citations by year: 2026: 108 · 2025: 109 · 2024: 99 · 2023: 124 · 2022: 119 · 2021: 112 · 2020: 169 · 2019: 115 · 2018: 102 · 2017: 95 · 2016: 108 · 2015: 77 · 2014: 80 · 2013: 85 · 2012: 64
FWCI: 88.34
Type: journal article
Language: en
Update notices: correction (2010-03-01)
Open access: closed
Locations: Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: National Science Foundation (REC 0635444)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Education, Achievement, and Giftedness
Social Sciences › Safety Research › Career Development and Diversity
Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Cognitive and developmental aspects of mathematical skills
Keywords: gender differences in mathematics, gender equity, student attitudes toward mathematics, TIMSS, PISA, student enrollment, women's parliamentary representation, girls' agency
MeSH terms: Achievement, Cognition, Cross-Sectional Studies, Female, Humans, Male, Mathematics, Sex Factors, United States

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Cross-national patterns of gender differences in mathematics: A meta-analysis.

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