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Cited by 34Ancient Egypt and ArchaeologyArchaeology and ancient environmental studiesForensic Anthropology and Bioarchaeology Studies

Who were the Hyksos? Challenging traditional narratives using strontium isotope (87Sr/86Sr) analysis of human remains from ancient Egypt

Open access
Stantis, Chris, Kharobi, Arwa, Maaranen, Nina, Nowell, Geoff M., Bietak, Manfred, Prell, Silvia, Schutkowski, Holger·2020·PLOS ONE
DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0235414PMC PMC7363063
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Abstract

A foreign dynasty, known as the Hyksos, ruled parts of Egypt between c. 1638-1530 BCE. Their origins are thought to be rooted in the Near East, which is supported by architectural features and grave accoutrements of Tell el-Dabca. In this former Hyksos capital in the Eastern Nile Delta, burial culture is characterized by a blend of Egyptian and Near Eastern elements. However, investigations are still ongoing as to where the Hyksos came from and how they rose to power. The aim of this study is to elucidate the question of possible provenience. We present the results of strontium isotope (87Sr/86Sr) ratios of human tooth enamel (n = 75) from Tell el-Dabca, focusing on comparing pre- and during Hyksos rule and sex-based differences. An influx of non-locals can be observed in the pre-Hyksos period (12th and 13th Dynasties, c. 1991-1649 BCE) during the constitution of this important harbor town, while the number of individuals already born in the Delta is larger during the Hyksos period. This is consistent with the supposition that, while the ruling class had Near Eastern origins, the Hyksos' rise to power was not the result of an invasion, as popularly theorized, but an internal dominance and takeover of foreign elite. There is a preponderance of non-local females suggesting patrilocal residence. We discuss our findings against the current evidence of material culture and historiography, but more investigation in Near Eastern comparative sites has to be conducted to narrow our future search for the actual origins of the Hyksos.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

Strontium isotope analysis of 75 human tooth enamel samples from Tell el-Dabca finds that more than half of individuals spent childhood outside the Nile Delta, with more non-locals in the pre-Hyksos period than during Hyksos rule. The results challenge the invasion narrative and support an internal rise to power by a foreign-origin elite already resident in Egypt.

Key findings

  • 40/75 individuals (53%) had 87Sr/86Sr values outside the local range (0.70761–0.70780), indicating childhood residence outside the northeastern Nile Delta.
  • Pre-Hyksos individuals had significantly higher 87Sr/86Sr values than Hyksos-period individuals (mean 0.70797 ± 0.00025, n = 36 vs. 0.70783 ± 0.00021, n = 35; t(70) = 2.6, p = 0.012), showing more immigrants before Hyksos rule.
  • Females were significantly more likely to be non-local than males (mean 0.70801 ± 0.00029, n = 30 vs. 0.70786 ± 0.00021, n = 20; t(49) = 2.1, p = 0.041), with the discussion noting 77% of females as non-local, suggesting patrilocal residence.
  • No significant difference was found between excavation areas (t(74) = -1.24, p = 0.250), and the wide range of non-local values suggests diverse origins rather than a single homeland.

Methods

  • Strontium isotope (87Sr/86Sr) analysis of human tooth enamel from Tell el-Dabca, Egypt, sampling 75 individuals from Areas A/I (n = 1), A/II (n = 67), and F/I (n = 7); preferentially second permanent molars or premolars, which form between ages 3 and 8.
  • Individuals were grouped into pre-Hyksos (12th–13th Dynasties, 1991–1649 BCE; n = 36) and Hyksos-period (n = 35) contexts, with sex estimates for 30 females and 20 males.
  • Enamel samples were analyzed by MC-ICP-MS at Durham University; local range was defined as animal baseline mean ± 2 SD (0.70761–0.70780), and statistical comparisons used t-tests in R.

Limitations

  • The paper states that non-locals cannot be confidently provenanced because the wider Nile Valley has a restricted 87Sr/86Sr range similar to the local range, so individuals from Memphis, Thebes, Upper Egypt, or Nubia may be present but unidentifiable.
  • The paper notes that no botanical baseline was collected; animal bones were used as a proxy, and future Near Eastern comparative sites are needed to narrow the Hyksos’ actual origins.
  • The paper states that sex-and-time-period subgroups are too small for statistical testing, and that the excavated cemeteries likely represent elites rather than the common population; the text also makes evident that sex was estimated for only 50 of 75 individuals and that three intermediate-phase individuals could not be assigned to the pre-/during-Hyksos dichotomy.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1371/journal.pone.0235414

Cites

60 of 60 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

3 tests recomputed · 0 with the reported and recomputed p on opposite sides of .05

Claims the paper makes

11 of 53 cited sources checked · 6 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Premisecitation

    Multiple paleomobility studies have used 87Sr/86Sr analysis of human dental enamel to identify non-locals in Egyptian and Sudanese contexts along the Nile Valley.

    “Multiple paleomobility studies have utilized 87Sr/86Sr on human dental enamel to identify non-locals in Egyptian and Sudanese contexts along the Nile Valley [41–45], although none have been conducted on humans from the Nile Delta region.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim2 of 5 sources checked
    • cites [41] MR Buzon, 2007, Migration in the Nile Valley during the New Kingdom period: a preliminary strontium isotope study, Journal of Archaeological Science source
    • cites [42] MR Buzon, 2013, Strontium isotope (87Sr/86Sr) variability in the Nile Valley: identifying residential mobility during ancient Egyptian and Nubian sociopolitical changes in the New Kingdom and Napatan periods, American Journal of Physical Anthropology source
    • cites [43] MR Buzon, 2016, Entanglement and the Formation of the Ancient Nubian Napatan State, American Anthropologist source
    • cites [44] SA Schrader, 2019, Intraregional 87Sr/86Sr variation in Nubia: New insights from the Third Cataract. Journal of Archaeological Science, Reports source
    • cites [45] A Touzeau, 2013, Egyptian mummies record increasing aridity in the Nile valley from 5500 to 1500yr before present, Earth and Planetary Science Letters source
  • Premisecitation

    A site chronology has been established by timelines provided by a stela of Sesostris III and the abandonment of the site at the end of the Hyksos Period along with comparative ceramic studies with well-dated sites in Egypt and further refined with 14C dating.

    “A site chronology has been established by timelines provided by a stela of Sesostris III and the abandonment of the site at the end of the Hyksos Period along with comparative ceramic studies with well-dated sites in Egypt and further refined with 14C dating [53, 54].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim2 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [53] W Kutschera, 2012, The chronology of Tell el-Daba: a crucial meeting point of 14C dating, archaeology, and Egyptology in the 2nd millennium BC, Radiocarbon source

      The Tell el-Daba Site section (page not supplied) identifies the Sesostris III stela and the site's abandonment as chronological datum lines, and describes ceramic seriation. But the Conclusion (page not supplied) says the radiocarbon and archaeological-historical chronologies seriously disagree and that reconciling them remains a future goal. It does not support the claim that radiocarbon dating further refined an established site chronology. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [54] CL Pearson, 2018, Annual radiocarbon record indicates 16th century BCE date for the Thera eruption, Science Advances source

      Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 1 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation

    The local region at Tell el-Dabca has a restricted bioavailable 87Sr/86Sr range, as demonstrated by animal samples.

    “These animal samples have demonstrated that the local region has a restricted bioavailable 87Sr/86Sr range.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [52] C Stantis, 2019, Animal proxies to characterize the strontium biosphere in the northeastern Nile Delta, Bioarchaeology of the Near East
  • Premisecitation

    Individuals who grew up along the Nile, where alluvium creates a corridor of homogenous 87Sr/86Sr values, likely show values too similar to differentiate between Upper and Lower Egypt.

    “Individuals who grew up along the Nile, where alluvium creates a corridor of homogenous 87Sr/86Sr values, likely show values too similar to differentiate between, for example, Upper and Lower Egypt [52].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [52] C Stantis, 2019, Animal proxies to characterize the strontium biosphere in the northeastern Nile Delta, Bioarchaeology of the Near East
  • Premisecitation

    Previous 87Sr/86Sr analysis of Tell el-Dabca animal bones serves as a proxy for the local biosphere.

    “Instead, previous 87Sr/86Sr analysis of Tell el-Dabca animal bones was used as proxy for the local biosphere [52].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [52] C Stantis, 2019, Animal proxies to characterize the strontium biosphere in the northeastern Nile Delta, Bioarchaeology of the Near East
  • May combine two claims. 15
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 21

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Strontium isotope (87Sr/86Sr) analysis of human tissues provides insight into residential mobility and origin at the individual level and allows extrapolations to large-scale socio-political dynamics.

    “Strontium isotope (87Sr/86Sr) analysis of human tissues provides insight into residential mobility and origin on the individual level, allowing extrapolations into largescale socio-political dynamics [36–40].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 5 sources checked
    • cites [36] RA Bentley, 2006, Strontium Isotopes from the Earth to the Archaeological Skeleton: A Review, Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory source
    • cites [37] MQR Bastos, 2016, Isotopic study of geographic origins and diet of enslaved Africans buried in two Brazilian cemeteries, Journal of Archaeological Science source
    • cites [38] A Sołtysiak, 2019, Strontium and nitrogen isotopic evidence of food import to Tell Ashara–Terqa, a Bronze Age city on the Euphrates, Syria, International Journal of Osteoarchaeology source
    • cites [39] C Stantis, 2016, Isotopic evidence of human mobility and diet in a prehistoric/protohistoric Fijian coastal environment (c. 750–150 BP), American Journal of Physical Anthropology source

      The 'Isotopic Analysis of Mobility' section explains that tooth-enamel 87Sr/86Sr ratios can indicate where an individual lived during childhood. The 'Mobility in Bourewa' section considers a broader question about patrilocality but says the strontium results identified only one nonlocal, making it impossible to address that hypothesis. The paper therefore supports individual-level insight, not the claimed extrapolation to large-scale socio-political dynamics in this study. Page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.87)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [40] C Stantis, 2019

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Plant material is generally accepted to be ideal for forming a bioavailable strontium baseline.

    “Although plant material is generally accepted to be ideal for forming a bioavailable strontium baseline [49–51], exportation of modern botanical samples were not within the purview of this study.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [49] G Hartman, 2014, Mapping and defining sources of variability in bioavailable strontium isotope ratios in the Eastern Mediterranean, Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta source
    • cites [50] ER Arnold, 2016, Isotopic Evidence for Early Trade in Animals between Old Kingdom Egypt and Canaan, PLOS ONE source

      Materials and Methods (‘Modern reference collection and processing’) uses modern plants as a bioavailable-strontium baseline, but says they are suitable when plant and invertebrate ratios are highly correlated, as in the Levant. The Results (‘Mapping local bioavailable 87Sr/86Sr ratios’) also notes soils for which plant measurements require calibration or cannot represent all soils. The paper therefore supports using plants as a baseline, not the broader claim that they are generally accepted as ideal. (LLM, conf=0.85)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [51] JA Evans, 2010, Spatial variations in biosphere 87Sr/86Sr in Britain, Journal of the Geological Society source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Recent research suggests that fertilization with lime in modern agriculture affects interpretation of strontium isotopes.

    “Recent research suggests that fertilization with lime in modern agriculture affects interpretation of strontium isotopes [47], although that is not expected to be a major issue in the fertile Nile Delta.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [47] E Thomsen, 2019, Agricultural lime disturbs natural strontium isotope variations: Implications for provenance and migration studies, Science Advances source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationcitation

    The greater proportion of non-local females compared to males could fit with patrilocality in Egypt and the Near East.

    “The greater proportion of non-local females compared to males could fit with patrilocality in Egypt and the Near East [73], but this rather high proportion of 77% of females as non-local deserves more careful contextual consideration.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [73] A Al-Shorman, 2011, Burial practices in Jordan from the Natufians to the Persians, Estonian Journal of Archaeology source

      The Middle Bronze Age section says that families in Jordan probably had patrilocal residence, supporting the proposed interpretation in a limited setting. It does not establish patrilocality in Egypt or the Near East generally, or discuss a greater proportion of non-local females than males. The 77% figure is the citing authors’ subsequent qualification, not a finding attributed to this source. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Findingreasoning

    75 individuals were available to analyze.

    “With these sampling limitations, 75 individuals were available to analyze.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Chronological patterns of movement can be observed using 87Sr/86Sr analysis on human remains from Tell el-Dabca, with more immigrants before the Hyksos Dynasty.

    “Chronological patterns of movement can be observed using 87Sr/86Sr analysis on human remains from the site of Tell el-Dabca, with more immigrants previous to the Hyksos Dynasty.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The proportion of non-local females compared to males is greater, with 77% of females being non-local.

    “The greater proportion of non-local females compared to males could fit with patrilocality in Egypt and the Near East [73], but this rather high proportion of 77% of females as non-local deserves more careful contextual consideration.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    36 individuals are considered 'pre-Hyksos' and 35 are from the time of Hyksos rule.

    “36 are considered ‘pre-Hyskos’ and 35 are from the time of Hyksos rule.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    There were significant differences in the 87Sr/86Sr values for Pre-Hyksos and Hyksos individuals; t(70) = 2.6, p = 0.012, with more immigrants during the Pre-Hyksos time periods.

    “There were significant differences in the 87Sr/86Sr values for Pre-Hyksos and Hyksos individuals; t(70) = 2.6, p = 0.012, with more immigrants during the Pre-Hyksos time periods (Fig 5A).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Of the 75 individuals analyzed, 30 are estimated to be female and 20 are estimated to be male.

    “Of those, 30 are estimated to be female and 20 are estimated to be male.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    The individuals sampled were excavated from three areas of the site: A/I (n = 1), A/II (n = 67), and F/I (n = 7).

    “The individuals sampled were excavated from three areas of the site: A/I (n = 1), A/II (n = 67), and F/I (n = 7).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Tell el-Dabca has a stratigraphy extending over 500 years.

    “The site, located in the northeastern Nile Delta, has revealed a stratigraphy extending over 500 years [14, 15] (Fig 2).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [14] M Bietak, 1996

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [15] Bietak M. From where came the Hyksos and where did they go? In: Marée M, editor. The Second Intermediate Period (Thirteenth—Seventeenth Dynasties). Leuvan, Belgium: Uitgeveru Peeters and Departement Oosterse Studies; 2010. p. 139–81.

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The settlement at Tell el-Dabca was founded in the 12th dynasty.

    “This settlement was founded in the 12th dynasty and was known from the 13th dynasty onwards as Hutwaret [18–20].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [18] E Czerny, 2015 source
    • cites [19] Forstner-Müller I. The Colonization/Urbanization of the Tell Area A/II at Tell el-Dab'a and its Chronological Implications. Ägypten und Levante/Egypt and the Levant. 172007. p. 83–95. source
    • cites [20] E Czerny, 2001, Ein Früher Beleg Für ḥwt-wʿrt Auf Einem Siegelabdruck Aus Tell El-Dabʿa, Ägypten und Levante/Egypt and the Levant

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The Hyksos' rise to power was not the result of an invasion, as popularly theorized, but an internal dominance and takeover of a foreign elite.

    “This is consistent with the supposition that, while the ruling class had Near Eastern origins, the Hyksos’ rise to power was not the result of an invasion, as popularly theorized, but an internal dominance and takeover of foreign elite.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The appearance of a distinct eastern Delta material culture, interpreted as that of the Fifteenth Dynasty, was identified from stratum E/2-1 onwards, with further changes during D/2.

    “The appearance of a distinct eastern Delta material culture, interpreted as that of the Fifteenth Dynasty, was identified from stratum E/2-1 onwards, with further changes during D/2 [31].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [31] Forstner-Müller I. Tombs and burial customs at Tell el-Dab‘a during the late Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period. In: Marèe M, editor. The Second Intermediate Period (Thirteenth- Seventeenth Dynasties) Current Research, Future Prospects. Leuven, Belgium: OLA; 2010. p. 127–38.

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The people who became Hyksos rulers were of non-Egyptian ethnicity who were born and raised in the Delta, not foreign elites arriving directly from foreign lands.

    “though not the foreign elite arriving directly from foreign lands as Manetho recounted but people of non-Egyptian ethnicity who were born and raised in the Delta [14–16].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [14] M Bietak, 1996

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [15] Bietak M. From where came the Hyksos and where did they go? In: Marée M, editor. The Second Intermediate Period (Thirteenth—Seventeenth Dynasties). Leuvan, Belgium: Uitgeveru Peeters and Departement Oosterse Studies; 2010. p. 139–81.

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [16] J Baines, 1996

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Manetho's account of the Hyksos was biased and unreliable.

    “Manetho’s account only survived in the works of later historians such as Flavius Josephus and, however biased and unreliable, was the solitary known source of the Hyksos for centuries [3–5].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [3] DB Redford, 1970, The Hyksos Invasion in History and Tradition, Orientalia

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [4] J Dillery, 1999, The First Egyptian Narrative History: Manetho and Greek Historiography, Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik
    • cites [5] F Josephus, 1849

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Examination of individuals buried in the cemeteries of Tell el-Dabca offers the opportunity to directly assess the origins of these residents and assess questions relating to timing and mechanisms of the Hyksos' rise to rule.

    “The examination of individuals buried in the cemeteries of Tell el-Dabca offers the opportunity to directly assess the origins of these residents and assess questions relating to timing and mechanisms of the Hyksos’ rise to rule (for a brief history of excavation of the site, see [17] pp. 23–24).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Strontium isotope (87Sr/86Sr) analysis of human remains can be used to assess the geographic origins of individuals buried at Tell el-Dabca.
    • Rests on an assumption: Tell el-Dabca became the capital of the regional Hyksos Kingdom.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The earliest occupation in Area F/I dates to the 12th Dynasty, strata e/2-3.

    “The earliest occupation in Area F/I dates to the 12th Dynasty, strata e/2-3 [33].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [33] Czerny E, von den Driesch A. Tell el-Dab'a IC. Eine Plansiedlung des frühen mittleren Reiches Vienna, Austria: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften; 1999.

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The Nile River is formed from the Blue Nile tributary running through modern-day Ethiopia and Sudan and the White Nile tributary, which begins at Lake No in South Sudan or further north in the African Great Lakes Region depending on the definition.

    “The Nile River is formed from the Blue Nile tributary running through modern-day Ethiopia and Sudan and the White Nile tributary, which, depending on the definition, either begins at Lake No in South Sudan or further north in the African Great Lakes Region [48].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [48] R Said, 2017 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Second permanent molars or permanent premolars (first or second) complete crown formation between three and eight years of age.

    “Second permanent molars or permanent premolars (first or second) were selected preferentially as these teeth, whether mandibular or maxillary, complete crown formation between three and eight years of age [58].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [58] CFA Moorrees, 1963, Age Variation of Formation Stages for Ten Permanent Teeth, Journal of Dental Research source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    Three individuals came from site phases intermediate to the pre- and during-Hyksos periods and could not be assigned using the dichotomous system.

    “although three came from site phases intermediate to the pre- and during- Hyksos periods and could not be assigned using this dichotomous system”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Breaking down the sub-groups by sex and time period creates small sub-groups that are not ideal for statistical testing.

    “Breaking down the sub-groups by sex and time period creates small sub-groups that are not ideal for statistical testing”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductcitation

    Age and sex estimations were determined using standard bioarchaeological methods.

    “Age and sex estimations were determined using standard bioarchaeological methods [55, 56], with Winkler and Wilfing's observations as field osteologists at the site used as supplementary information [57].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [55] Brickley M, McKinley JI. Guidelines to the standards for recording human remains. IFA paper. 2004;7.

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [56] Buikstra JE, Ubelaker DH. Standards for Data Collection from Human Skeletal Remains. Fayetteville: Arkansas Archaeological Survey; 1994.

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    First molars are less ideal for isotopic analysis because their more precocious development causes some maternal influence during in utero development of the crown.

    “First molars were less ideal as their more precocious development causes some maternal influence during the in utero development of the crown [58], but were selected when no other molar or premolar was available.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [58] CFA Moorrees, 1963, Age Variation of Formation Stages for Ten Permanent Teeth, Journal of Dental Research source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The attitude towards marriage to foreign families continues into the 18th Dynasty: foreign women could marry into high status Egyptian families, but Egyptian women would not marry foreign kings.

    “This attitude towards marriage to foreign families continues into the 18th Dynasty [75]: foreign women could marry into high status Egyptian families, but Egyptian women would not marry foreign kings.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [75] AR Schulman, 1979, Diplomatic Marriage in the Egyptian New Kingdom, Journal of Near Eastern Studies source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    The Hyksos were not an invading force occupying Tell el-Dabca and the upper Nile Delta, but an internal group of people who gained power in a system with which they were already familiar.

    “In combination with previous archaeological evidence [15], this research supports the concept that the Hyksos were not an invading force occupying this city and the upper Nile Delta, but an internal group of people who gained power in a system with which they were already familiar.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [15] Bietak M. From where came the Hyksos and where did they go? In: Marée M, editor. The Second Intermediate Period (Thirteenth—Seventeenth Dynasties). Leuvan, Belgium: Uitgeveru Peeters and Departement Oosterse Studies; 2010. p. 139–81.

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The local range defined as animal baseline mean ± 2 SD (0.70761-0.70780) generates wider limits than the total range of animal 87Sr/86Sr values (0.70766-0.70778), creating more conservative parameters for 'local' values.

    “This generates wider limits than the total range of animal 87Sr/86Sr values (0.70766–0.70778), creating more conservative parameters for ‘local’ values.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    This research supports the theory that the Hyksos rulers were not from a unified place of origin, but Western Asiatics whose ancestors moved into Egypt during the Middle Kingdom, lived there for centuries, and then rose to rule the north of Egypt.

    “Instead, this research supports the theory that the Hyksos rulers were not from a unified place of origin, but Western Asiatics whose ancestors moved into Egypt during the Middle Kingdom, lived there for centuries, and then rose to rule the north of Egypt.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
29 of 29

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Strontium isotope ratios (87Sr/86Sr) in human tooth enamel can indicate whether an individual was local or non-local to the Delta region.

    “We present the results of strontium isotope (87Sr/86Sr) ratios of human tooth enamel (n = 75) from Tell el-Dabca, focusing on comparing pre- and during Hyksos rule and sex-based differences.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    There is ongoing uncertainty about where the Hyksos came from and how they rose to power.

    “However, investigations are still ongoing as to where the Hyksos came from and how they rose to power.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The Hyksos were a foreign dynasty that ruled parts of Egypt between c. 1638–1530 BCE.

    “A foreign dynasty, known as the Hyksos, ruled parts of Egypt between c. 1638–1530 BCE.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The local strontium isotope baseline for the Eastern Nile Delta can be distinguished from non-local values.

    “An influx of non-locals can be observed in the pre-Hyksos period (12th and 13th Dynasties, c. 1991–1649 BCE) during the constitution of this important harbor town, while the number of individuals already born in the Delta is larger during the Hyksos period.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Strontium isotope (87Sr/86Sr) analysis of human remains can be used to assess the geographic origins of individuals buried at Tell el-Dabca.

    “The examination of individuals buried in the cemeteries of Tell el-Dabca offers the opportunity to directly assess the origins of these residents”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Tell el-Dabca became the capital of the regional Hyksos Kingdom.

    “During the Middle Kingdom, this city was an administrative center and a harbor city that grew in power to finally become the capital of the regional Hyksos Kingdom.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    An individual’s body tissues reflect the 87Sr/86Sr values of the underlying geology in which they lived when these tissues were forming, with no appreciable fractionation across trophic levels or in metabolic processes.

    “Interpretation of strontium isotope analysis rests on the assumption that an individual’s body tissues will reflect the 87Sr/86Sr values of the underlying geology in which they lived when these tissues were forming, with no appreciable fractionation across trophic levels or in metabolic processes [46].”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Fertilization with lime in modern agriculture is not expected to be a major issue in the fertile Nile Delta.

    “Recent research suggests that fertilization with lime in modern agriculture affects interpretation of strontium isotopes [47], although that is not expected to be a major issue in the fertile Nile Delta.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The wider Nile Valley has a fairly restricted range similar to the local range.

    “The caveat is that the wider Nile Valley also has a fairly restricted range similar to the local range, and so identifying non-locals who originated from this region might be impossible using strontium isotope analysis alone.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Erosion of the southern geological formations by the Nile creates low variability of biogenically available 87Sr/86Sr values when the river reaches the Delta.

    “The southern geological formations are heterogeneous and complex, but erosion of these formations by the Nile create low variability of biogenically available 87Sr/86Sr values when the river reaches the Delta.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    No paleomobility studies using 87Sr/86Sr on human dental enamel have been conducted on humans from the Nile Delta region.

    “Multiple paleomobility studies have utilized 87Sr/86Sr on human dental enamel to identify non-locals in Egyptian and Sudanese contexts along the Nile Valley [41–45], although none have been conducted on humans from the Nile Delta region.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The Nile River is the main water source for drinking and watering crops through ancient Nubia and Egypt.

    “Given that the Nile River is the main water source for drinking and watering crops through ancient Nubia and Egypt”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The excavated cemeteries and domestic burials are more representative of the elites of the city rather than the common population.

    “The excavated cemeteries and domestic burials are assumed to be more representative of the elites of the city rather than the ‘common’ population [13]”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Under a model of families moving as economic opportunities arose, gender parity would have been expected.

    “Gender parity would have been expected with families moving as economic opportunities arose”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The Hyksos Dynasty was the first instance in which Egypt was ruled by those of foreign origin.

    “this study is the first to use archaeological chemistry to directly address the origins of the enigmatic Hyksos Dynasty, the first instance in which Egypt is ruled by those of foreign origin.”
15 of 15

Statistics that don’t add up

Each reported p-value recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom.

  • Inconsistent p-value: t(74) = -1.24, p = .250

    Minor

    The paper reports p = .25 here; recomputing from the test statistic and its degrees of freedom gives p = .219 (two-tailed). The check cannot tell whether the statistic or the p-value is the misprint.

    Reported p = .25 · recomputed p = .219

1 of 1

Statistics recomputed

Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.

  • Doesn’t add upt(74) = -1.24reported p = .25 · recomputed p = .219

    “t(74) = -1.24, p = .250”

  • Consistentt(70) = 2.6reported p = .012 · recomputed p = .011

    “t(70) = 2.6, p = .012”

  • Consistentt(49) = 2.1reported p = .041 · recomputed p = .041

    “t(49) = 2.1, p = .041”

3 of 3

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Self-check results appear here once an independent check has confirmed them.

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 11

  1. M Bietak, 2001, The Oxford Encyclopedia of Anciet Egypt, 136
  2. DB Redford, 1970, The Hyksos Invasion in History and Tradition, Orientalia, 39, 1
  3. F Josephus, 1849, The Works of Flavius Josephus
  4. T Schneider, 2010, Foreigners in Egypt: Archaeological evidence and cultural context, Egyptian Archaeology, 143
  5. M Bietak, 1996, Avaris, The Capital of the Hyksos and Residence of the Early 18th Dynasty
  6. J Baines, 1996, Contextualizing Egyptian Representations of Society and Ethnicity
  7. E Czerny, 2001, Ein Früher Beleg Für ḥwt-wʿrt Auf Einem Siegelabdruck Aus Tell El-Dabʿa, Ägypten und Levante/Egypt and the Levant, 11, 13
  8. B Bader, 2013, Cultural mixing in Egyptian archaeology: The ‘Hyksos’ as a case study, Archaeological Review from Cambridge, 28, 257
  9. Bietak M. The Center of Hyksos Rule: Avaris (Tell el-Daba). In: Oren ED, editor. The Hyksos: New Historical and Archaeological Perspectives. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: University Museum Symposium Series; 1997.
  10. C Stantis, 2019, The Enigma of the Hyksos 9, 321
  11. T Schneider, 1998, Ausländer in Ägypten während des Mittleren Reiches und der Hyksoszeit

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Stantis, C., Kharobi, A., Maaranen, N., Nowell, G. M., Bietak, M., Prell, S., & Schutkowski, H.
Affiliations
  • Bournemouth University (GB)
  • Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (FR)
  • Durham University (GB)
  • Austrian Academy of Sciences (AT)
Corresponding author
Stantis, Chris
ORCID
Venue
PLOS ONE
Publisher
Public Library of Science (PLoS)
Published
2020-07-15
Volume
15
Issue
7
Pages
e0235414
ISSN
1932-6203 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1371/journal.pone.0235414
PMC
PMC7363063
OpenAlex
W3043287298
Semantic Scholar
ab9872af48935d29ae8b33bc7c6a2c02456cdbf3
Cited by
34
References
60
Citations by year
2026: 3 · 2025: 3 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 7 · 2021: 10 · 2020: 2
FWCI
29.35
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • PLoS ONE (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • Bournemouth University Research Online (Bournemouth University) (acceptedVersion)
  • Durham Research Online (Durham University) (acceptedVersion, other-oa)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Funders
European Research Council (668640)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Archeology › Ancient Egypt and Archaeology
  • Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Paleontology › Archaeology and ancient environmental studies
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Archeology › Forensic Anthropology and Bioarchaeology Studies
Keywords
Hyksos, ancient Egypt, strontium isotope analysis, dental enamel, human remains, Tell el-Dabca, provenience, migration, Twelfth Dynasty, 13th Dynasty, patrilocal residence, sex differences, Eastern Nile Delta
MeSH terms
Body Remains, Egypt, Ancient, Burial, Dental Enamel, Humans, Strontium Isotopes, History, Ancient

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-28.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-28.

Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

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