Teacher questions, wait time, and student output in classroom interaction in EMI science classes: An interdisciplinary view

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

During social interaction, a learner can be assisted by a more competent other to accomplish a task which is beyond the learner's current ability.

“During social interaction, a learner can be assisted by a more competent other to accomplish a task which is beyond the learner's current ability.This process is termed scaffolding (Wood et al., 1976).”

• cites Wood et al., 1976 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

On average 54.13 questions were asked by the teachers in a lesson and one teacher question occurred every 49.63 seconds during teacher-whole class interaction time.

“As background information, on average 54.13 questions were asked by the teachers in a lesson and one teacher question occurred every 49.63 seconds during teacher-whole class interaction time.”

May combine two claims.

Despite the use of more higher-order thinking questions, there was a limited variety.

“Despite the use of more higher-order thinking questions, however, there was a limited variety.”

May combine two claims.

There was a wide range of average wait time across the lessons, with a standard deviation of 1.23 seconds, indicating some degree of variation in the teachers' practices.

“However, there was a wide range of average wait time across the lessons, as shown by the standard deviation of 1.23 seconds, indicating some degree of variation in the teachers' practices.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In Excerpt 4, the teacher asked a pumping question to invite students to hypothesize whether an open-closed tube should be longer or shorter than the open-open tube to obtain resonance with the same tuning fork.

“In Excerpt 4, the teacher asked a pumping question in Turn 11 to invite students to make a hypothesis of a new scenario, that is, to obtain resonance with the same tuning fork whether the open-closed tube should be longer or shorter than the open-open tube.”

May combine two claims.

Wait time after teacher questions had a rather short average length of 1.01 seconds per lesson, showing the teachers generally did not leave long wait times.

“Wait time after teacher questions had a rather short average length of 1.01 seconds per lesson, showing the teachers generally did not leave long wait times.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The teacher then conducted an experiment that proved the student's first answer, shorter, was correct.

“The teacher then conducted an experiment, which proved the student's first answer, shorter, was correct.”

May combine two claims.

Half of the teacher questions were higher-order thinking questions, with recall questions occupying only a small proportion.

“The finding that half of the teacher questions were higher-order thinking questions, with recall questions occupying only a small proportion”

May combine two claims.

The noun verb ratio in student responses was 5.19:1, showing a strong noun-oriented nature and limited use of verbs.

“The noun verb ratio in student responses, 5.19:1, showed a strong noun-oriented nature, indicating limited use of verbs.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In Turn 34, the teacher asked a pumping question to elicit students' ideas about whether identical twins have the same fingerprints.

“In Turn 34, the teacher asked a pumping question to elicit students' ideas about whether identical twins have the same fingerprints.”

May combine two claims.

Wait time seemed to be a stronger factor leading to student output of more quantity and quality, whereas the use of higher-order thinking questions did not necessarily achieve the same effect.

“One of the foremost findings of this study is that wait time seemed to be a stronger factor leading to student output of more quantity and quality whereas the use of higher-order thinking questions did not necessarily achieve the same effect.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). The quote only partly states this claim.

The teacher's elaboration led the student to quickly change her answer to longer.

“This led the student to quickly change her answer to longer.”

May combine two claims.

Initial higher-order thinking questions often received incomplete student answers, and there was a lack of follow-up questions or effective follow-up questions by the teacher to push students to elaborate their answers.

“Examination of the lesson excerpts shows often initial higher-order thinking questions received incomplete student answers, and there was a lack of follow-up questions or effective follow-up questions by the teacher to push students to elaborate their answers.”

May combine two claims.

The moderate positive correlation between wait time and all four student output measures suggests that when the teachers did give more wait time, the students were able to produce lengthier output with more complicated linguistic structures involving verbs instead of single-noun answers, talk more and initiate more questions themselves.

“The moderate positive correlation between wait time and all four student output measures suggests that when the teachers did give more wait time, the students were able to produce lengthier output with more complicated linguistic structures involving verbs instead of single-noun answers, talk more and initiate more questions themselves.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The wait time led to the student's one-word answer, shorter.

“This led to the student's one-word answer, shorter.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

After the short student turn, the teacher immediately provided a full explanation himself: fingerprints are not genetic.

“After this short student turn, the teacher in Turn 38 immediately provided a full explanation himself: fingerprints are not genetic.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

After the student's short answer No in Turn 35, the teacher asked a follow-up pumping question Why to invite elaboration from the student.

“After the student's short answer No in Turn 35, the teacher asked a follow-up pumping question: Why to invite elaboration from the student.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A lengthy wait time of three seconds was given in Turn 12.

“Then, a lengthy wait time of three seconds was given in Turn 12.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The teacher repeated back maybe shorter but did not indicate if the student's answer was correct.

“Then the teacher repeated back maybe shorter but does not indicate if the student's answer is correct.”

May combine two claims.

The time percentage of student talk averaged 10.06% of teacher whole-class interaction time, showing overall limited student participation.

“The time percentage of student talk averaged 10.06% of teacher whole-class interaction time, showing overall limited student participation.”

May combine two claims.

Pumping was the most widely used type, accounting for 24.61% of all teacher questions, which is 52.55% of all higher-order thinking questions.

“Pumping was the most widely used type, accounting for 24.61% of all teacher questions, which is 52.55% of all higher-order thinking questions.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The teacher asked a yes/no follow-up question referring to Figure 1 to confirm with the student the reason for her answer.

“He then asked a yes/no follow-up question, which referred to Figure 1 to confirm with the student the reason for her answer.”

May combine two claims.

As Excerpts 3 and 4 show, initial higher-order thinking questions, typically pumping questions, often did not receive a full answer, and there were often missed opportunities for other varieties of higher-order thinking questions to be asked as follow-up questions.

“As Excerpts 3 and 4 show, initial higher-order thinking questions, typically pumping questions, often did not receive a full answer, and there were often missed opportunities for other varieties of higher-order thinking questions to be asked as follow-up questions.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Cognitive development originates from social contexts and proceeds to individual mental activity.

“As Vygotsky (1986) states, cognitive development originates from social contexts and proceeds to individual mental activity.”

• cites Vygotsky (1986)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Modified input and feedback that occur during negotiation of meaning are particularly beneficial for second or foreign language (L2) development.

“Long's (1996) interaction hypothesis argued that the modified input and feedback that occur during negotiation of meaning are particularly beneficial for second or foreign language (L2) development, highlighting again the significance of interaction.”

• cites Long's (1996) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Increased wait time, to a threshold of three seconds or more, gives students more time to think about the questions and is associated with positive changes in classroom interaction patterns, including increased number and length of student utterances.

“Studies later found that an increased wait time, to a threshold of three seconds or more, gives students more time to think about the questions and is associated with positive changes in the classroom interaction patterns, including increased number and length of student utterances (Swift & Gooding, 1983) and student answers being”

• cites Swift & Gooding, 1983 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Rowe, 1986 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Questions asking for reasons and metacognitive questions generated the most complex responses.

“In addition, questions asking for reasons and metacognitive questions generated the most complex responses.”

• cites Llinares and Pascual Peña (2015)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Constructivist teaching is often contrasted with teaching by transmission where teacher questions often elicit only restricted student responses consisting of pre-determined single detached words which typically only require lower-order thinking.

“Constructivist teaching is often contrasted with teaching by transmission where teacher questions often elicit only restricted student responses consisting of pre-determined”

• cites Chin, 2006 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites van Zee & Minstrell, 1997 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Teachers normally leave an average of less than one second of wait time after asking a question.

“Rowe's work found that teachers normally leave an average of less than one second of wait time after asking a question (Rowe, 1974).”

• cites Rowe, 1974 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

EMI teachers' own English proficiency has often been called into question and identified as a reason for the prevalent use of closed and lower-order thinking questions.

“In EMI studies, EMI teachers' own English proficiency has often been called into question and identified as a reason for the prevalent use of closed and lowerorder thinking questions (Sopia et al., 2010;Yip et al., 2007).”

• cites Sopia et al., 2010Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Yip et al., 2007Not checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

In CLIL lessons in Austria, questions for facts were predominant at 89%, and short student responses featuring single noun phrases persisted independent of the type of questions.

“In contrast, Dalton-Puffer (2007) found in CLIL lessons in Austria that while questions for facts were predominant at 89%, short student responses featuring single noun phrases persisted independent of the type of questions.”

• cites Dalton-Puffer (2007) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The inter-rater reliability for coding all measures was .78, indicating a reasonable level of reliability.

“This resulted in an inter-rater reliability of .78,indicating a reasonable level of reliability (Robson, 2002).”

• cites Robson, 2002Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Average wait time greater than three seconds led to higher achievement in learning.

“Tobin (1987) further argued that average wait time greater than three seconds led to higher achievement in learning.”

• cites Tobin (1987) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

There is little research on wait time in EMI contexts.

“In addition, there is little research on wait time in EMI contexts.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Language development needs not only input but also output where learners can test their hypotheses of language forms and notice the gap between their interlanguage and the target forms.

“In second language acquisition (SLA), it is now well accepted that language development needs not only input but also output where learners can test their hypotheses of language forms and notice the gap between their interlanguage and the target forms (Swain, 1985).”

• cites Swain, 1985Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

In CLIL history classes in Madrid, 65.84% of teacher questions were recall questions, with questions for eliciting facts producing the simplest and shortest responses.

“Llinares and Pascual Peña (2015) found in CLIL history classes in Madrid that 65.84% of teacher questions were recall questions, with questions for eliciting facts producing the simplest and shortest responses.”

• cites Llinares and Pascual Peña (2015)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

When EMI teachers possess high English proficiency, they might be more confident in opening up conversations to collectively construct knowledge with students on complicated subject matter and adopt a constructivist teaching approach with a more dialogic nature.

“This shows that when EMI teachers possess high English proficiency, they might be more confident in opening up conversations to collectively construct knowledge with students on complicated subject matter and adopt a constructivist teaching approach with a more dialogic nature.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The NSTs in the study had high English proficiency.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Each questioning approach possesses a special and meaningful function in contributing to constructivist teaching.

“As Chin (2007) discussed, each of the questioning approaches possesses a special and meaningful function in contributing to constructivist teaching.”

• cites Chin (2007) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The follow-up question Why was a probing move aimed at eliciting the underlying principle of an outcome.

“This follow-up question is also a probing move (Tang, 2021) as it aimed to elicit the underlying principle of an outcome.”

• cites Tang, 2021Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In EMI classes, wait time after lower-order thinking questions may be helpful if the language barrier causes challenges to students' responses.

“This could be because in EMI classes wait time after lower-order thinking questions may be helpful if the language barrier causes challenges to students' responses, as demonstrated by Excerpt 3.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

This case demonstrates possible missed opportunities of follow-up questioning to address the initial higher-order thinking question.

“This case demonstrates possible missed opportunities of follow-up questioning to address the initial higher-order thinking question.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Modelling a possible sentence structure and key words may scaffold students' use of language to provide a full answer.

“This may scaffold students' use of language to provide a full answer.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

This atmosphere effect was also observed in L1 classrooms.

“This was also observed in L1 classrooms (Samiroden, 1983).”

• cites Samiroden, 1983Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Students may need to create their own language in explaining their reasoning, as compared to likely recycling or reciting the language they received in answering recall questions.

“The students may need to create their own language in explaining their reasoning, as compared to likely recycling or reciting the language they received in answering recall questions.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Higher-order thinking questions may place a higher demand on language use.

“Due to the more complex thinking processes requested, higher-order thinking questions may also place a higher demand on language use.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Higher-order thinking questions require more complex thinking processes than recall questions.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The teacher's elaboration of the difference between Figure 1 and Figure 2 in Turn 17 seemed to be an effort to lead students to think more and possibly point to a contradiction.

“His elaboration of the difference between Figure 1 and Figure 2 in Turn 17 seemed to be an effort to lead students to think more and possibly point to a contradiction.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Pumping, the most commonly used type, is a more straightforward form of constructivist questions.

“One reason could be that pumping, the most commonly used type, by Chin's (2007) definition, is a more straightforward form of constructivist questions.”

• cites Chin's (2007) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The short average student turn length and the high noun-verb ratio suggest a prevalent use of short noun-oriented answers and limited degree of articulation of science processes, where verbs would be typically required.

“The short average student turn length and the high noun-verb ratio suggest a prevalent use of short noun-oriented answers and limited degree of articulation of science processes, where verbs would be typically required.”

May combine two claims.

Follow-up questions have been well established in L1 science classes as helpful for pushing students to elaborate on their thinking, but the follow-up moves discussed are typically centered around the science content.

“While follow-up questions have been well established in L1 science classes as helpful for pushing students to elaborate on their thinking (Mortimer & Scott, 2003;Tang, 2021), the follow-up moves discussed are typically centered around the science content.”

• cites Mortimer & Scott, 2003Not checked — no full text of the source
• cites Tang, 2021Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

A wide range of questioning approaches and multiple effective follow-up questions may be necessary in building extensive dialogues.

“a wide range of questioning approaches and multiple effective follow-up questions may be necessary in building extensive dialogues.”

May combine two claims.

Apart from the limited use of wait time and the lack of variety of the higher-order thinking questions, another reason for the lack of effect could be a lack of effective follow-up questions.

“Apart from the limited use of wait time and the lack of variety of the higher-order thinking questions, another reason could be a lack of effective follow-up questions.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Follow-up moves that model or elicit key language items are particularly needed.

“Thus, follow-up moves that model or elicit key language items are particularly needed.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Follow-up moves scaffolding the language constitute an additional dimension that needs to be addressed in EMI classes.

“This incorporation of the language aspect is another key implication of this study, where we argue that follow-up moves scaffolding the language constitute an additional dimension that needs to be addressed in EMI classes.”