Back to the Future of Dissonance Theory: Cognitive Consistency as a Core Motive
Abstract
In his theory of cognitive dissonance, Festinger (1957) described cognitive consistency as a psychological need that is as basic as hunger and thirst. Over the past decades, however, the idea of cognitive consistency as a core motive has been replaced by an increasingly narrow focus on dissonance-related changes in attitudes and alternative accounts that attribute such changes to mechanisms of ego-defense. The current article aims at reviving the idea of cognitive consistency as a core motive, arguing that inconsistency serves as an epistemic cue for errors in one's system of beliefs. Because inconsistency can often be resolved in multiple ways, motivated reasoning can bias processes of inconsistency resolution toward desired conclusions, although motivated distortions are constrained by the need for cognitive consistency. The ubiquity of consistency processes is illustrated through its role in various instances of threat-compensation (e.g., victim derogation, self-verification, system justification) and the insights that can be gained from reconceptualizing various social psychological phenomena in terms of cognitive consistency (e.g., prejudice-related belief systems, dispositional inference, stability of first impressions).
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Action-based and epistemic theories of dissonance explain some cases of cognitive dissonance but cannot provide an overarching explanation of all examples and aspects.
“Both of these accounts can provide a convincing explanation of some cases of cognitive dissonance. But neither of them is in a position to provide an overarching explanation of all examples and all aspects of cognitive dissonance.”
From Conative Dissonance (2026) · cites this paper as Gawronski, 2012
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“More recent work suggests consistency serves a basic epistemic signal: inconsistency implies an error in one’s system of beliefs (Gawronski 2012).”
BackgroundGreene, C. M., Nash, R. A., & Murphy, G. (2021) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2021.1923754 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
“When faced with information that is threatening to one’s sense of self, this dissonance may be resolved by creating new cognitions that justify the behaviour of the in-group or derogate members of the out-group (Gawronski, 2012).”
Waldow, F. (2017) · Compare A Journal of Comparative and International Education · doi:10.1080/03057925.2016.1262245 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Gaspar, R., Luís, S., Seibt, B., Lima, M. L., Marcu, A., Rutsaert, P., Fletcher, D., Verbeke, W., & Barnett, J. C. (2015) · Journal of Risk Research · doi:10.1080/13669877.2014.1003318 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
“Cognitive dissonance theory (Festinger 1957; see Gawronski 2012, for a review) postulates that inconsistent cognitions (such as contradictory beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors) elicit an aversive state of psychological arousal or psychological discomfort: the state of dissonance.”
BackgroundInfluentialGawronski, B., & Bodenhausen, G. V. (2016) · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Self-citationBiased belief updating in depression
Kube, T. (2023) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2023.102298 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Formation, representation, and activation of contextualized attitudes
Gawronski, B., Ye, Y., Rydell, R. J., & Houwer, J. D. (2014) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2014.05.010 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
“(2010) argued that exposure to counterattitudinal information enhances attention to the momentary context in order to identify factors that may resolve the inconsistency between the initial expectancy and the newly acquired information (cf. Festinger, 1957; Gawronski, 2012).”
BackgroundSelf-citationSu, C., Lebrun, A., Bouchet, P., Wang, J.-R., Lorgnier, N. G. A., & Yang, J.-H. (2015) · Service Business · doi:10.1007/s11628-015-0292-z · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Encouraging ecological behaviour through induced hypocrisy and inconsistency
Priolo, D., Milhabet, I., Codou, O., Fointiat, V., Barbenchon, E. L., & Gabarrot, F. (2016) · Journal of Environmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2016.06.001 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Nicholson, S., & Lutz, D. (2017) · Journal of Aggression Maltreatment & Trauma · doi:10.1080/10926771.2017.1314989 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
“Some propose that the pragmatic purpose of dissonance arousal in the face of cognitive or behavioral inconsistencies provides individuals with cues that one’s thoughts or actions violate context-appropriate behaviors and thus require appropriate revisions (Gawronski, 2012).”
BackgroundBrannon, S. M., & Gawronski, B. (2016) · Social Psychological and Personality Science · doi:10.1177/1948550616673875 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
“, Gawronski & Bodenhausen, 2006). Consistent with this idea, Mann and Ferguson (2015) found changes in implicit evaluations only when participants engaged in propositional inferences about the new meaning of old information but not when such inferences were disrupted.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialSelf-citationKanitz, R., Huy, Q. N., Backmann, J., & Hoegl, M. (2021) · Academy of Management Journal · doi:10.5465/amj.2019.0413 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Exploring hope and expectations in the youth mental health online counselling environment
Dowling, M. J., & Rickwood, D. (2015) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2015.08.009 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Merk, S., Rosman, T., Rueß, J., Syring, M., & Schneider, J. M. (2017) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0184971 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
The Social Value of Being Ambivalent
Pillaud, V., Cavazza, N., & Butera, F. (2013) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167213490806 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
“Attitudinal ambivalence is traditionally opposed to cognitive consistency (see Gawronski, 2012), as it results from evaluative inconsistencies (Fabrigar, MacDonald, & Wegener, 2005).”
Thin Slice Impressions: How Advertising Evaluation Depends on Exposure Duration
Elsen, M., Pieters, R. G. M., & Wedel, M. (2015) · Journal of Marketing Research · doi:10.1509/jmr.13.0398 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Attitudes and the Implicit-Explicit Dualism
Gawronski, B., & Brannon, S. M. (2018) · Dialnet (Universidad de la Rioja) · doi:10.4324/9781315178103-4 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
“A central assumption of the APE model is that the propositional validation of activated associations involves an assessment of consistency, in that inconsistency requires a reassessment and potential revision of one’s beliefs (Gawronski, 2012).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialSelf-citationGehlbach, H., Mascio, B., & McIntyre, J. (2022) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/edu0000762 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Demystifying deliberate counterfeit purchase behaviour: towards a unified conceptual framework
Sharma, P., & Chan, R. Y. K. (2016) · Marketing Intelligence & Planning · doi:10.1108/mip-12-2014-0228 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Facilitation for professional learning community conversations in Singapore
Hairon, S. (2016) · Asia Pacific Journal of Education · doi:10.1080/02188791.2016.1148855 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“This principle is underpinned by the research team’s argument that cognitive inconsistency serves as an “epistemic cue for errors in one’s system of beliefs” (Gawronski, 2012), which could afford positive attitude towards change and thus learning.”
BackgroundSpecificity in the Study of Mixed Emotions: A Theoretical Framework
Oh, V. Y. S., & Tong, E. M. W. (2022) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/10888683221083398 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“Given fundamental needs for consistency (Gawronski, 2012), the coexistence pattern may explain why mixed emotions are often experienced as conflicting (Vaccaro et al., 2020; P. Williams & Aaker, 2002).”
BackgroundHopkins, L. B., Medina, J. L., Davis, M. L., Presnell, K. E., Powers, M. B., & Smits, J. A. J. (2013) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-013-9547-y · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“Prior work has shown that individuals often discount information, attitudes, and values that threaten their self-concept (Gawronski 2012; Lapinkski and Boster 2001).”
Hayes, J., Schimel, J., Williams, T. J., Howard, A. L., Webber, D. J., & Faucher, E. H. (2015) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298868.2015.1036919 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
“Classic theories of cognitive consistency (e.g., Festinger, 1957) are grounded in this same basic logic (see Gawronski, 2012).”
BackgroundCognitive Consistency in Social Cognition
Brannon, S. M., & Gawronski, B. (2018) · Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Psychology · doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190236557.013.314 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“Expanding on these findings, Gawronski, Walther, and Blank (2005) suggested that balance principles influence interpersonal attitudes by shaping the encoding of information about the relation between individuals rather than the retroactive construal of evaluations.”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationBenozio, A., & Diesendruck, G. (2015) · Psychology Science · doi:10.1177/0956797615589585 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“…suggest that dissonance may derive from a perceived threat to one’s self-concept (Cooper, 2007; Steele, 1988) or the unbearable sense of cognitive inconsistency (Gawronski, 2012); thus, these approaches suggest that the most effective solutions are to alter new concepts or change existing ones.”
BackgroundBrannon, S. M., Sacchi, D. L. M., & Gawronski, B. (2017) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2016.12.011 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
“…Expectancy-violation Impression formation Negativity bias Warmth Competence Inconsistencies between cognitions play a central role in howpeople understand the world by signaling potential errors in one's belief system that need to be resolved (Gawronski, 2012; Gawronski & Brannon, in press).”
BackgroundSelf-citationSensemaking and sensegiving as predicting organizational crisis
Klein, G., & Eckhaus, E. (2017) · Risk Management · doi:10.1057/s41283-017-0019-7 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
The Effects of Tipping on Consumers' Satisfaction with Restaurants
Lynn, M. (2017) · Journal of Consumer Affairs · doi:10.1111/joca.12171 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
“…satisfaction with the service encounter via self-perception processes (Fazio, 1987), (ii) positively bias their perceptions of service encounters to justify their tipping (Gawronski, 2012), or (iii) feel pride, self-satisfaction or some other form of “warm glow” affect (Giebelhausen, et. al, 2017).”
BackgroundShiff, T. (2021) · American Journal of Sociology · doi:10.1086/716485 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Nohlen, H. U., van Harreveld, F., Rotteveel, M., Barends, A. J., & Larsen, J. T. (2016) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2016.02.001 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
“According to Festinger's original formulation of cognitive dissonance theory, consistency is a fundamental human motive and it has recently been argued that we should revive the idea of consistency as a core motive (Gawronski, 2012).”
BackgroundA Multilab Replication of the Induced-Compliance Paradigm of Cognitive Dissonance
Vaidis, D. C., Sleegers, W. W. A., van Leeuwen, F., DeMarree, K. G., Sætrevik, B., Ross, R. M., Schmidt, K., Protzko, J., Morvinski, C., Ghasemi, O., et al. (2024) · Advances in Methods and Practices in Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/25152459231213375 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“All in all, further theoretical and empirical work is necessary to determine whether these findings align with versions of CDT focused on inconsistency (e.g., Gawronski, 2012; Harmon-Jones, 2019)”
ResultGehlbach, H., Robinson, C. D., Finefter-Rosenbluh, I., Benshoof, C., & Schneider, J. (2018) · Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/01443410.2017.1349876 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“In most situations, this uncomfortable tension motivates action to alleviate the tension (Brehm, 2007; Gawronski, 2012; Martinie, Milland, & Olive, 2013).”
BackgroundGrounding judgement in context: A conceptual learning model of clinical reasoning
Koufidis, C., Manninen, K., Nieminen, J. T., Wohlin, M., & Silén, C. (2020) · Medical Education · doi:10.1111/medu.14222 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Buttlar, B., Pauer, S., & van Harreveld, F. (2024) · European Review of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/10463283.2024.2373547 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“Research on cognitive conflict has been highly influential within and beyond social psychology (Cooper, 2007; Gawronski, 2012).”
Cognitive dissonance in food and nutrition – A conceptual framework
Ong, A., Frewer, L., & Chan, M. (2017) · Trends in Food Science & Technology · doi:10.1016/j.tifs.2016.11.003 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Grant, M. D., Flores, A., Pedersen, E. J., Sherman, D. K., & Leaf Van Boven, A. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0259473 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Swann, W. B., & Buhrmester, M. D. (2012) · Social Cognition · doi:10.1521/soco.2012.30.4.415 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Bolos, L. A., Lagerkvist, C. J., & Kulesz, M. M. (2019) · Food Quality and Preference · doi:10.1016/j.foodqual.2019.02.011 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Sommerfeldt, E. J., & Kent, M. L. (2020) · Public Relations Review · doi:10.1016/j.pubrev.2020.101933 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
A Systematic Study of Ambivalence and Well-Being in Romantic Relationships
Zoppolat, G., Righetti, F., Faure, R., & Schneider, I. (2023) · Social Psychology and Personality Science · doi:10.1177/19485506231165585 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“So far, despite the evidence that the conflict between implicit and explicit evaluations is generally aversive and consequential (for reviews, see Gawronski, 2012; Petty et al., 2012), this type of ambivalence has not been examined in the context of romantic relationships.”
BackgroundSome prior considerations about dissonance to understand its reduction: Comment on McGrath (2017)
Vaidis, D. C., & Bran, A. (2018) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/spc3.12411 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
The principle of consistency and the cause and function of behaviour
KAMPEN, H. S. V. (2018) · Behavioural Processes · doi:10.1016/j.beproc.2018.12.013 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Becker, D., Jostmann, N. B., Hofmann, W., & Holland, R. W. (2018) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/emo0000526 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Majeed, S., Kim, W., & Ryu, K. (2022) · Journal of Quality Assurance in Hospitality & Tourism · doi:10.1080/1528008x.2022.2135058 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“…behavior and has been applied to different research contexts to interpret the impact of complex psychological stimuli like cognitive distance, expectations, perceived risk, and the regret of a decision, etc., on consumer behavior (Gawronski, 2012; McDonald et al., 2015; Park & Jang, 2013).”
BackgroundReputation, Game Theory and Entrepreneurial Sustainability
Chousa, J. P., Vizcaíno‐González, M., & Cabarcos, Á. L. (2016) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su8111196 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“and involves the agent identifying the origin of the conflict and making changes in order to abandon dissonance and to reach consonance adopting active reputational thinking from that moment on [88].”
BackgroundConfirmation of interpersonal expectations is intrinsically rewarding
Reggev, N., Chowdhary, A., & Mitchell, J. P. (2021) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nsab081 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“The human preference for consistent and predictable social interactions has long been acknowledged as a core motivational component driving everyday behavior (Festinger, 1957; Gawronski, 2012).”
BackgroundGuo, D., He, G., & Lian, Z. (2017) · International Journal of Sustainable Transportation · doi:10.1080/15568318.2017.1306761 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“As a result, they may perceive or report low risks for HSR in order to alleviate their discomfort (Gawronski, 2012).”
BackgroundHerbeć, A., Brown, J., Jackson, S., Kale, D., Zatoński, M., Garnett, C., Chadborn, T., & Shahab, L. (2020) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2021.103458 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Using Motivational Interviewing to reduce threats in conversations about environmental behavior
Klonek, F. E., Güntner, A. V., Lehmann‐Willenbrock, N., & Kauffeld, S. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01015 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“A substantial body of research has focused on various reasons why individuals may experience threats in social interactions (e.g., Festinger, 1957; Brehm, 1966, 1993; Steele, 1988; Jost and Banaji, 1994; Blascovich and Mendes, 2000; Gawronski, 2012; Jonas et al., 2014).”
BackgroundFalse memories for dissonance inducing events
Rodriguez, D. N., & Strange, D. (2015) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2014.881501 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“…which dissonance processes are found, recent work has focused on understanding the origins of cognitive dissonance and its relations to other aspects of social cognition and behaviour regulation (Gawronski, 2012; E. Harmon-Jones, Amodio, & HarmonJones, 2009; Proulx, Inzlicht, & Harmon-Jones, 2012).”
BackgroundAlignment of values and political orientations amplifies climate change attitudes and behaviors
Smith, E. K., & Hempel, L. M. (2022) · Climatic Change · doi:10.1007/s10584-022-03348-5 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“Cognitive (in)consistency serves as a cue about the correctness of a person’s belief system (Gawronski 2012; Quine and Ullian 1978): the more congruent, the more correct people perceive their views to be.”
BackgroundPolitical Context and Citizen Information: Propaganda Effects in China
Chen, D. (2018) · International Journal of Public Opinion Research · doi:10.1093/ijpor/edy019 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Confabulation, Rationalisation and Morality
Jefferson, A. (2018) · Topoi · doi:10.1007/s11245-018-9608-7 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“Leon Festinger, the founder of cognitive dissonance theory, also saw the need for cognitive consistency as a core human motive (Gawronski 2012).”
BackgroundUnderstanding Perpetrator Reactions to Bystander Intervention in Interpersonal Workplace Aggression
Vranješ, I., Lyubykh, Z., Hershcovis, M. S., & Caza, B. B. (2023) · Academy of Management Review · doi:10.5465/amr.2020.0396 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Dispositional Properties of Metaphor
Fetterman, A. K., Meier, B. P., & Robinson, M. D. (2017) · Journal of Individual Differences · doi:10.1027/1614-0001/a000234 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“People generally seek consistency among their social cognitions (Crandall, Silvia, N’Gbala, Tsang, & Dawson, 2007; Gawronski, 2012) and a modern take on Heider’s (1958) balance theory has been particularly generative here (Cvencek, Greenwald, & Meltzoff, 2012; Greenwald et al., 2002).”
BackgroundInfluentialImplicit Ambivalence: A Driving Force to Improve Relationship Problems
Faure, R., McNulty, J. K., Meltzer, A. L., & Righetti, F. (2021) · Social Psychological and Personality Science · doi:10.1177/19485506211034277 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“…that ambivalent attitudes involving opposite attributes assessed on the same dimension, such as the ambivalent global partner evaluations revealed by past research, cause discomfort that motivates people to resolve the underlying conflict (Gawronski, 2012; van Harreveld et al., 2009, 2015).”
ResultPouwels, J. L., Lansu, T. A. M., & Cillessen, A. H. N. (2017) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2017.02.008 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“Youths’ motivation to believe in the truth of their desired beliefs may affect how they resolve this inconsistency (Gawronski, 2012).”
BackgroundAcademic and Clinical Dissonance in Physical Therapist Education: How Do Students Cope?
Dutton, L. L., & Sellheim, D. O. (2017) · Journal of Physical Therapy Education · doi:10.1097/00001416-201731010-00009 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Duffy, A. M., & Cheng, L. (2020) · Journalism Practice · doi:10.1080/17512786.2020.1804986 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“Cognitive dissonance has a key function in indicating possible errors in one’s ideologies and beliefs (Quine and Ullian 1978) because “inconsistency is an unambiguous cue for errors that require appropriate revisions” (Gawronski 2012, 655).”
BackgroundSeeber, M., Vlegels, J., Reimink, E., Marušić, A., & Pina, D. G. (2021) · Research Evaluation · doi:10.1093/reseval/rvab011 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Expert or partner: The matching effect of AI chatbot roles in different service contexts
Zhu, Y., Liang, J., & Zhao, Y. (2025) · Electronic Commerce Research and Applications · doi:10.1016/j.elerap.2025.101496 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
The role of dialecticism in objective and subjective attitudinal ambivalence
Luttrell, A., Petty, R. E., Chang, J., & Togans, L. J. (2021) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjso.12504 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“Given the relevance of attitudinal ambivalence to research on general cognitive consistency processes (Gawronski, 2012), we hypothesized that dialecticism – both as an individual difference and as a cross-cultural difference – would play a role in the occurrence and consequence of attitudinal…”
Baker, L. R., & McNulty, J. K. (2019) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/1088868319881243 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“Experiencing negative affect due to an unsolvable problem may be threatening and thus activate defensive strategies, such as dissonance reduction (Gawronski, 2012) and reaction formation (H. E. Adams, Wright, & Lohr, 1996), that affect how people evaluate their experiences.”
BackgroundFeeney, J. R., Gellatly, I. R., Goffin, R. D., & Inness, M. (2020) · Journal of Personnel Psychology · doi:10.1027/1866-5888/a000252 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Wolff, L., & Taddicken, M. (2022) · New Media & Society · doi:10.1177/14614448221090194 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“This draws attention to how people create consistency from information, which is crucial for understanding how a person’s state shifts from dissonant to consonant (Gawronski, 2012).”
BackgroundWen, T., Zheng, R., Wu, T., Liu, Z., Zhou, M., Syed, T. A., Ghataoura, D. S., & Chen, Y. (2024) · European Journal of Operational Research · doi:10.1016/j.ejor.2024.12.015 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
- Authors
- Gawronski, B.
- Affiliations
- Western University (CA)
- Corresponding author
- Gawronski, Bertram
- ORCID
- Gawronski, Bertram
- Venue
- Social Cognition
- Publisher
- Guilford Publications
- Published
- 2012-12
- Volume
- 30
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 652-668
- ISSN
- 0278-016X (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2021142797
- Cited by
- 342
- References
- 67
- Citations by year
- 2026: 36 · 2025: 21 · 2024: 27 · 2023: 30 · 2022: 34 · 2021: 25 · 2020: 16 · 2019: 30 · 2018: 26 · 2017: 21 · 2016: 23 · 2015: 19 · 2014: 18 · 2013: 12 · 2012: 3
- FWCI
- 54.86
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Social Cognition (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Death Anxiety and Social Exclusion
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Psychology of Social Influence
- Keywords
- cognitive dissonance, cognitive consistency, inconsistency resolution, motivated reasoning, victim derogation, self-verification, system justification, prejudice, dispositional inference, first impressions, belief systems, defense mechanisms
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