Neural Substrates Mediating Human Delay and Trace Fear Conditioning
Open accessAbstract
Previous functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies with human subjects have explored the neural substrates involved in forming associations in Pavlovian fear conditioning. Most of these studies used delay procedures, in which the conditioned stimulus (CS) and unconditioned stimulus (UCS) coterminate. Less is known about brain regions that support trace conditioning, a procedure in which an interval of time (trace interval) elapses between CS termination and UCS onset. Previous work suggests significant overlap in the neural circuitry supporting delay and trace fear conditioning, although trace conditioning requires recruitment of additional brain regions. In the present event-related fMRI study, skin conductance and continuous measures of UCS expectancy were recorded concurrently with whole-brain blood oxygenation level-dependent (BOLD) imaging during direct comparison of delay and trace discrimination learning. Significant activation was observed within the visual cortex for all CSs. Anterior cingulate and medial thalamic activity reflected associative learning common to both delay and trace procedures. Activations within the supplementary motor area (SMA), frontal operculum, middle frontal gyri, and inferior parietal lobule were specifically associated with trace interval processing. The hippocampus displayed BOLD signal increases early in training during all conditions; however, differences were observed in hippocampal response magnitude related to the accuracy of predicting UCS presentations. These results demonstrate overlapping patterns of activation within the anterior cingulate, medial thalamus, and visual cortex during delay and trace procedures, with additional recruitment of the hippocampus, SMA, frontal operculum, middle frontal gyrus, and inferior parietal lobule during trace conditioning. These data suggest that the hippocampus codes temporal information during trace conditioning, whereas brain regions supporting working memory processes maintain the CS-UCS representation during the trace interval.
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Trace conditioning evokes distinct neural correlates from delay conditioning.
“which has been shown to evoke distinct neural correlates.6”
From Neural signatures of human fear conditioning: an updated and extended meta-analysis of fMRI studies (2016) · cites this paper as [6]
Studies using a delay differential cue-conditioning paradigm were focused on because other paradigms (trace or single-cue) appear to engage non-overlapping neural responses.
“We focused on studies using a delay differential cue-conditioning paradigm given that other paradigms (for example, trace or single-cue) appear to engage non-overlapping neural responses.6,19”
From Neural signatures of human fear conditioning: an updated and extended meta-analysis of fMRI studies (2016) · cites this paper as [6]
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- Authors
- Knight, D. C., Cheng, D. T., Smith, C. N., Stein, E. A., & Helmstetter, F. J.
- Affiliations
- University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee (US)
- National Institutes of Health (US)
- Medical College of Wisconsin (US)
- Venue
- The Journal of Neuroscience
- Publisher
- Society for Neuroscience
- Published
- 2004-01-07
- Volume
- 24
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 218-228
- ISSN
- 0270-6474 (ISSN-L)
- 1529-2401
- PMC
- PMC6729570
- OpenAlex
- W2144116954
- Cited by
- 239
- References
- 73
- Citations by year
- 2026: 7 · 2025: 3 · 2024: 3 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 6 · 2021: 10 · 2020: 7 · 2019: 6 · 2018: 4 · 2017: 7 · 2016: 13 · 2015: 11 · 2014: 22 · 2013: 26 · 2012: 13
- FWCI
- 6.22
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Journal of Neuroscience (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-sa)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health
- National Institute of Mental Health (R01MH060668, F31MH011722, MH060668, MH11722)
- National Institute on Drug Abuse (R01DA009465, DA 09465)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Keywords
- fear conditioning, trace conditioning, delay conditioning, classical conditioning, neural correlates, hippocampus, supplementary motor area, frontal operculum, inferior parietal lobule, anterior cingulate cortex, medial thalamus, visual cortex, working memory, temporal coding
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Brain, Conditioning, Classical, Electric Conductivity, Electric Stimulation, Electroshock, Fear, Female, Hippocampus, Humans, Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Male, Neurons, Time Factors
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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