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Prior Expectation Mediates Neural Adaptation to Repeated Sounds in the Auditory Cortex: An MEG Study
Open accessAbstract
Repetition suppression, the phenomenon that the second presentation of a stimulus attenuates neural activity, is typically viewed as an automatic consequence of repeated stimulus presentation. However, a recent neuroimaging study has suggested that repetition suppression may be driven by top-down expectations. Here we examined whether and when repetition suppression can be modulated by top-down expectation. Participants listened to auditory stimuli in blocks where tone repetitions were either expected or unexpected, while we recorded ongoing neural activity using magnetoencephalography. We found robust repetition suppression in the auditory cortex for repeated tones. Interestingly, this reduction was significantly larger for expected than unexpected repetitions, both in terms of evoked activity and gamma-band synchrony. These findings indicate a role of top-down expectation in generating repetition suppression and are in line with predictive coding models of perception, in which the difference between expected and actual input is propagated from lower to higher cortical areas.
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“Direct evidence for alpha/beta and gamma in predictive coding per se comes from observations of increased gamma power to stimuli that are prediction errors (22, 24, 25).”
From Layer and rhythm specificity for predictive routing (2020) · cites this paper as [25]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
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“But there is mounting evidence that oscillatory dynamics play a role in regulating cortical processing and thus can also play a role, especially the gamma (40 to 90 Hz) and alpha/beta (10 to 30 Hz) bands (1, 18–25).”
From Layer and rhythm specificity for predictive routing (2020) · cites this paper as [25]
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“Similarly, violating expectations of auditory repetition causes enhanced gamma-band responses in early auditory cortex (Todorovic et al., 2011).”
From Canonical Microcircuits for Predictive Coding (2012) · cites this paper as Todorovic et al., 2011
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“As with RS, ES has been consistently reported in human brain imaging studies across sensory modalities and noninvasive neural recording techniques 45 , 46 , 74 , 75 , 76 , 77 , 78 , 79 , 80 , 81 (but see Ref. 82)”
From Evaluating the neurophysiological evidence for predictive processing as a model of perception (2020) · cites this paper as [45]
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“Numerous subsequent functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), magnetoencephalography (MEG), and electroencephalography (EEG) studies have reported modulations of RS by the probability of a repetition 45 , 46 , 58 , 59 , 60 , 61 , 62 , 63 , 64 , 65 , 66 , 67 (i.e., expectation) (but see Refs. 68, 69, 70).”
From Evaluating the neurophysiological evidence for predictive processing as a model of perception (2020) · cites this paper as [45]
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“Studies that have sought to test PP's characterization of oscillatory message passing have found that when a stimulus is expected, beta power gradually builds in the lead up to stimulus onset, and gamma activity is reduced when those expectations are realized.”
From Evaluating the neurophysiological evidence for predictive processing as a model of perception (2020) · cites this paper as [45]
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“Todorovic et al. 45 found greater gamma power for unexpected tone repetitions and unexpected omissions, but unexpected repetitions also elicited greater power in low frequencies (5–9 Hz).”
From Evaluating the neurophysiological evidence for predictive processing as a model of perception (2020) · cites this paper as [45]
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“Todorovic et al. 45 found greater gamma power for unexpected tone repetitions and unexpected omissions, but unexpected repetitions also elicited greater power in low frequencies (5–9 Hz).”
From Evaluating the neurophysiological evidence for predictive processing as a model of perception (2020) · cites this paper as [45]
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“Studies that have sought to test PP's characterization of oscillatory message passing have found that when a stimulus is expected, beta power gradually builds in the lead up to stimulus onset, and gamma activity is reduced when those expectations are realized.”
From Evaluating the neurophysiological evidence for predictive processing as a model of perception (2020) · cites this paper as [45]
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Citations
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“Overall, these set of results suggest that the top – down knowledge-based expectation effect (Todorovic et al., 2011), the interval-based temporal expectation effect (Todorovic et al., 2015), and our rhythm-based temporal expectation effect may be mediated by similar mechanisms.”
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“The predictive coding idea has been generalized to non-visual systems (Bar 2007; Todorovic et al. 2011), and even a “unified theory” of the brain (Friston 2010).”
MethodTrial-by-trial predictions of subjective time from human brain activityPreprint
Sherman, M. T., Fountas, Z., Seth, A. K., & Roseboom, W. (2020) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2020.01.09.900423 · Cited by 3
Omission responses in field potentials but not spikes in rat auditory cortexPreprint
Auksztulewicz, R., Rajendran, V. G., Peng, F., Schnupp, J. W. H., & Harper, N. S. (2022) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2022.02.11.479668 · Cited by 3
“The omission response we observed had lower amplitudes and longer latencies than stimulus-evoked responses, consistent with previous non-invasive results in humans (Andreou et al., 2015; Chennu et al., 2016; Todorovic et al., 2011).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialNeural mechanisms of attention, not expectation, govern spatial selection by probabilistic cueing
Sunder, S., Rajendran, K., Biswas, M., & Sridharan, D. (2025) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2025.121412 · Cited by 2
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“Previous research showed that this shift can modulate top-down predictions (Summerfield et al., 2008) as well as lower sensory processing (Richter et al., 2024), leading to enhanced sensory processing for unexpected compared with expected input (Summerfield et al., 2008; Todorovic et al., 2011).”
Nicotine Enhances Amplitude and Consistency of Timing of Responses to Acoustic Trains in A1
Intskirveli, I., & Metherate, R. (2021) · Frontiers in Neural Circuits · doi:10.3389/fncir.2021.597401 · Cited by 2
Tkacheva, L. O., Flaksman, M., Sedelkina, Y., Lavitskaya, Y., & Nasledov, A. (2021) · Психология Журнал Высшей школы экономики · doi:10.17323/1813-8918-2021-4-792-812 · Cited by 2
Distinct interacting cortical networks for stimulus-response and repetition-suppression
Eckert, D., Reichert, C., Bien, C. G., Heinze, H., Knight, R. T., Deouell, L. Y., & Dürschmid, S. (2022) · Communications Biology · doi:10.1038/s42003-022-03861-4 · Cited by 2
Neural Evidence for Action-Related Somatosensory Predictions
Moran, C., Hogendoorn, H., & Landau, A. N. (2026) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.0889-25.2026 · Cited by 2
“We found fi nger-speci fi c decoding ∼ 120 – 250 ms after omission, consistent with auditory ERP omission responses (Todorovic et al., 2011; Wacongne et al., 2011; Sanmiguel et al., 2013a,b).”
Hierarchical surprise signals in naturalistic violation of expectations
Plikat, V., Grassi, P. R., Frack, J., & Bartels, A. (2025) · Imaging Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/imag_a_00459 · Cited by 2
“…lower-level VOE, for example using paradigms involving novel or infrequent (and thus unexpected) stimuli (e.g., Linden, 1999; Stevens et al., 2000; Todorovic et al., 2011; Wessel et al., 2012), omission of expected stimuli (e.g., Todorovic et al., 2011; Wacongne et al., 2011), or changes in…”
Neuronal phase consistency tracks dynamic changes in acoustic spectral regularity
Gifford, A. M., Sperling, M. R., Sharan, A. D., Gorniak, R., Williams, R. B., Davis, K. A., Kahana, M. J., & Cohen, Y. E. (2018) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/ejn.14263 · Cited by 2
Allen, C. P. G. (2018) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/ejn.14289 · Cited by 1
“…γ band fluctuations to states of preparedness or allocation of attention, particularly prior to demanding task elements, that allows for successful task performance (Reinhart, Mathalon, Roach, & Ford, 2011; Todorovic, van Ede, Maris, & de Lange, 2011; Womelsdorf, Fries, Mitra, & Desimone, 2006).”
BackgroundAll in the timing: Priming, repetition suppression, and synchrony
McMahon, D. B. T. (2012) · Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/17588928.2012.689969 · Cited by 2
Predicting audiovisual speech: Early combined effects of sentential and visual constraintsPreprint
Økland, H. S., Todorović, A., Lüttke, C. S., McQueen, J. M., & de Lange, F. P. (2018) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/360578 · Cited by 2
“Namely, expecting an upcoming auditory stimulus attenuates the auditory N1 both for pure tones (Hughes, Desantis, & Waszak, 2013; Lange, 2009; Todorovic et al., 2011; Todorovic & Lange, 2012) and for spoken words (Houde, Nagarajan, Sekihara, & Merzenich, 2002).”
BackgroundStrube, A., Rose, M., Fazeli, S., & Büchel, C. (2020) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2020.09.10.291658 · Cited by 2
“…with feedforward connections predominately originating from superficial layers and feedback connections from deep layers, we expect that prediction error signals should be related to higher frequencies (e.g. gamma band) than prediction signals (Todorovic et al., 2011; Arnal and Giraud, 2012).”
BackgroundMethodThe neural dynamics of feedforward and feedback interactions in predictive processingPreprint
Vinck, M. A., Uran, C., & Canales‐Johnson, A. (2022) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/n3afb · Cited by 3
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The influence of temporal context on vision over multiple time scalesPreprint
Lee, K.-H., & Rideaux, R. (2025) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.106614 · Cited by 2
“…with increased neural activation ( Kok et al., 2012 ; Alink et al., 2010 ; den Ouden et al., 2012 ; Meyer and Olson, 2011 ; Richter et al., 2018 ; Todorovic et al., 2011 ), which is typically observed during the initial processing cascade in sensory cortices associated with the unexpected…”
Færøvik, U., Specht, K., & Vikene, K. (2021) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2021.674050 · Cited by 1
A role for cortical interneurons as adversarial discriminators
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“[83, 84], omissions of expected musical beats [85], and unexpected mismatches between auditory and visual cues [86].”
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“Indeed, although perceptual attenuations (sensory silencing) are often reported [46–48], there has also been evidence of perceptual enhancements [49, 50].”
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“A few EEG/ MEG studies have examined the modulation of RS by expectation in visual words (Song et al. 2024; Summerfield et al. 2011), faces and visual gratings (Barbosa and Kouider 2018), as well as pure tones (Todorovic et al. 2011).”
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“Alternatively, effects of attention on sensory prediction error could be limited to gamma frequencies (Bastos et al. 2012), which are known to be elicited by unexpected sound omissions (Todorovic et al. 2011) but were not examined in this study.”
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“Temporal predictability has been reported to suppress cortical potentials [45, 46] and to enhance repetition suppression, which is a possible human electrophysiological counterpart of stimulus-specific adaptation (SSA) [47], which a plausible neural substrate for predictive encoding [48–51].”
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Correction: The Human Brain Maintains Contradictory and Redundant Auditory Sensory Predictions
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“For example, in auditory cortex, MEG and EEG studies show increases in gamma power to unexpected auditory stimuli (Haenschel et al., 2000; Todorovic et al., 2011), to omissions of expected musical beats (Fujioka et al., 2009), and to unexpected mismatches between auditory and visual cues (Arnal et…”
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Context-dependent sensory modulation underlies Bayesian vocal sequence perceptionPreprint
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“Furthermore, the newly proposed A-HER paradigm shows potential in averting Repetition Suppression (RS) ( Todorovic et al., 2011 ) effects and enhancing the SNR, thereby amplifying its relevance in neuroengineering applications.”
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Comprehensive Neural Representations of Naturalistic Stimuli through Multimodal Deep LearningPreprint
Fu, M., Chen, G., Zhang, Y., Zhang, M., & Wang, Y. (2025) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2025.04.15.646250 · Cited by 1
“While much of the existing evidence for predictive coding has come from tightly controlled experimental settings 29–31 , its manifestation during naturalistic experiences remains less understood.”
The influence of temporal context on vision over multiple time scalesPreprint
Lee, K.-H., & Rideaux, R. (2025) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.106614.1 · Cited by 1
Comprehensive Neural Representations of Naturalistic Stimuli through Multimodal Deep LearningPreprint
Fu, M., Chen, G., Zhang, Y., Zhang, M., & Wang, Y. (2025) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.107607 · Cited by 1
Comprehensive Neural Representations of Naturalistic Stimuli through Multimodal Deep LearningPreprint
Fu, M., Chen, G., Zhang, Y., Zhang, M., & Wang, Y. (2025) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.107607.1 · Cited by 3
Hu, M., & Maria Chait, A. (2026) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.64898/2026.01.09.698639 · Cited by 1
“Todorovic and de Lange demonstrated that N2 responses are sensitive to violations of learned expectations even when sensory adaptation is controlled (39,72), suggesting a model-based rather than stimulus-driven origin.”
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Temporal expectations in isochronous sequences
Li, M. (2016) · University of Birmingham Institutional Research Archive (University of Birmingham)
The separation of auditory experience and the temporal structure of MEG recorded brain activityPreprint
Allen, C. P. G. (2017) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/189480
“However, multiple studies have shown band changes, particularly prior to demanding task elements (23, 24).”
BackgroundIsolating neural indices of continuous speech processing from multivariate neural data
Liberto, D., & de Marco, G. (2017) · Arrow@dit (Dublin Institute of Technology)
Neto, R. M. D. A. (2017) · Digital Library of Theses and Dissertations (Universidade de São Paulo) · doi:10.11606/t.5.2017.tde-25102017-153544
Contribution of the subcortical auditory pathway to the perception and processing of sounds
Gorina-Careta, N. (2019) · LA Referencia (Red Federada de Repositorios Institucionales de Publicaciones Científicas)
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“The anterior effect temporally preceded the posterior effect, which the authors interpreted as evidence that top down predictions are compared against the incoming signal, and only unexplained information is propagated up the cortical hierarchy (Todorovic et al., 2011).”
BackgroundPredictive coding in auditory cortex: The neural responses to sound repetition and auditory change
Xuejing, L. U., & Xin, H. O. U. (2019) · Advances in Psychological Science · doi:10.3724/sp.j.1042.2019.01996
Oscillations of Sensitivity and Response Bias in Auditory Perception
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Visual Predictions Operate on Different Timescales
Darriba, Á., van Ommen, S., Hsu, Y., & Waszak, F. (2021) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn_a_01711
Aedo-Sánchez, C. A. (2020) · Gredos (University of Salamanca) · doi:10.14201/gredos.145489
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“down mechanisms in modulating the repetition-attenuation of auditory evoked responses (Font-Alaminos et al., 2020; Herrmann et al., 2018; Öhman & Lader, 1972; Todorovic et al., 2011).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialVisual short-term memory load modulates repetition related fMRI signal adaptation
Li, C., Kovács, G., & Trapp, S. (2021) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2021.108199
Bimodal Spatial and Temporal Influences on Working Memory PerformancePreprint
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Those Who Learn from History Are Doomed to Repeat It
Fabozzi, F. J., Chen, K. C., Ma, K. C., & Rao, R. P. (2022) · Journal of Behavioral Finance · doi:10.1080/15427560.2022.2100387
“Other sequential effects, such as repetition suppression, may similarly be cast as the result of this same prior (Todorovic et al. 2011; Henson 2016).”
ResultLundy, T., James, C. E., & Reybrouck, M. (2022) · Frontiers research topics · doi:10.3389/978-2-83250-291-4
Surprising sounds bias risky decision makingPreprint
Feng, G. W., & Rutledge, R. B. (2023) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/gdhzv
Wong, B. W. L., Huo, S., & Maurer, U. (2024) · doi:10.22541/au.171471492.29905843/v1
Repetition Suppression and Related Effects
Kryukov, V. I. (2025) · Mathematical Biology and Bioinformatics · doi:10.17537/2024.19.609
Siestrup, S., Leeners, L. M., Pomp, J., Roehe, M. A., Zahedi, A., & Schubotz, R. I. (2025) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhaf078 · Cited by 1
“However, there is also evidence that repetition and expectation effects may interact (Todorovic et al. 2011), even though they are expressed at different time scales (Todorovic and de Lange 2012).”
Wong, B. W. L., Chan, L. Y. H., Huo, S., & Maurer, U. (2026) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2026.109445
Omitted Stimulus Potentials: An Electroencephalographic Marker of Predictive Processing
Ishida, T., & Nittono, H. (2025) · Japanese Journal of Physiological Psychology and Psychophysiology · doi:10.5674/jjppp.2504re
Center-surround inhibition by expectation: a neuro-computational accountPreprint
Huang, L., Shen, S., Sun, Y., Ou, S., Zhang, R., de Lange, F. P., & Zhang, X. (2025) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.107301.1
Expectation effects on repetition suppression in nociception
Pohle, L.-M. G., Nickel, M. M., Nierula, B., Ploner, M., Horn, U., & Eippert, F. (2025) · Journal of Neurophysiology · doi:10.1101/2025.07.11.664149
“While consistently observed across sensory domains (for evidence in the olfactory, somatosensory, visual, and auditory domain, see e.g., 2–5 ), the underlying One approach to distinguish between those explanatory frameworks is to vary the probability of a repetition, i.e. p(rep).”
The influence of temporal context on vision over multiple time scalesPreprint
Lee, K.-H., & Rideaux, R. (2025) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.106614.2
Center-surround inhibition by expectation: a neuro-computational accountPreprint
Huang, L., Shen, S., Sun, Y., Ou, S., Zhang, R., de Lange, F. P., & Zhang, X. (2025) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.107301.2
Believing in simulated virtual scents produces reported olfactory sensations
Berg, A., & Henttonen, P. (2025) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-025-25418-1
van Haren, J., de Lange, F. P., Kotz, S. A., & Martino, F. D. (2025) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2025.11.24.687809
Lee, W.-T., Hazeltine, E., & Jiang, J. (2026) · PLoS Biology · doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.3003613 · Cited by 4
“Specifically, latent task in test stage presented twice more often than the other tasks during the training stage, which might evoke late sustained activation during the test stage, regardless of whether the latent task that is relevant to the current complex task [41,42].”
Gómez-Lombardi, A., Costa, B. G., Prado, P., Muñoz, P., & El‐Deredy, W. (2026) · Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspb.2025.1857
Perceiving regularity in sequences : behavioural, neural and computational signatures
Maheu, M. (2019) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/613538edz4e03z4a21za592z9859bfee3cff
Cacciato‐Salcedo, S., Lao-Rodríguez, A. B., & Malmierca (2026) · Hearing Research · doi:10.1016/j.heares.2026.109659
The life-world as the empirical basis of science
Pantazakos, T., & Wiltsche, H. A. (2026) · Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1007/s11097-026-10159-x
Synigal, S. R., Li, W., Serody, M. R., Thompson, J. L., & Lalor, E. C. (2026) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.64898/2026.07.31.742060
“A text prior was used here to mitigate any effects that might be caused by acoustic repetition (Di Liberto, Crosse, et al., 2018; Grill-139 Spector et al., 2006; Todorovic et al., 2011).”
Deep Predictive Learning: A Comprehensive Model of Three Visual Streams
O'Reilly, R. C., Wyatte, D. R., & Rohrlich, J. (2017) · arXiv · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1709.04654 · Cited by 26
Metadata
- Authors
- Todorovic, A., van Ede, F., Maris, E., & de Lange, F. P.
- Affiliations
- Radboud University Nijmegen (NL)
- ORCID
- Maris, E.
- Venue
- Journal of Neuroscience
- Publisher
- Society for Neuroscience
- Published
- 2011-06-22
- Volume
- 31
- Issue
- 25
- Pages
- 9118-9123
- ISSN
- 0270-6474 (ISSN-L)
- 1529-2401
- PMC
- PMC6623501
- OpenAlex
- W2017040534
- Semantic Scholar
- 01da2b94c0d012b4894f0ab8dd0e90bff96b699e
- Cited by
- 391
- References
- 50
- Citations by year
- 2026: 12 · 2025: 32 · 2024: 18 · 2023: 25 · 2022: 30 · 2021: 22 · 2020: 34 · 2019: 29 · 2018: 30 · 2017: 32 · 2016: 28 · 2015: 22 · 2014: 26 · 2013: 23 · 2012: 23
- FWCI
- 12.50
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Journal of Neuroscience (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Radboud Repository (Radboud University) (submittedVersion)
- Radboud Repository (Radboud University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Funders
- Nederlandse Organisatie voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neuroscience and Music Perception
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Sensory Systems › Hearing, Cochlea, Tinnitus, Genetics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Multisensory perception and integration
- Keywords
- repetition suppression, top-down expectations, auditory cortex, predictive coding, auditory evoked potentials, neural adaptation
- MeSH terms
- Acoustic Stimulation, Adaptation, Physiological, Attention, Auditory Cortex, Auditory Perception, Evoked Potentials, Auditory, Female, Humans, Male, Magnetoencephalography, Young Adult, Anticipation, Psychological
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