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Methylphenidate Enhances Working Memory by Modulating Discrete Frontal and Parietal Lobe Regions in the Human Brain
Open accessAbstract
The indirect catecholamine agonist methylphenidate (Ritalin) is the drug treatment of choice in attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (AD/HD), one of the most common behavioral disorders of childhood (DSM-IV), although symptoms may persist into adulthood. Methylphenidate can enhance cognitive performance in adults and children diagnosed with AD/HD (Kempton et al., 1999; Riordan et al., 1999) and also in normal human volunteers on tasks sensitive to frontal lobe damage, including aspects of spatial working memory (SWM) performance (Elliott et al., 1997). The present study investigated changes in regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF) induced by methylphenidate during performance of a self-ordered SWM task to define the neuroanatomical loci of the beneficial effect of the drug. The results show that the methylphenidate-induced improvements in working memory performance occur with task-related reductions in rCBF in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and posterior parietal cortex. The beneficial effects of methylphenidate on working memory were greatest in the subjects with lower baseline working memory capacity. This is to our knowledge the first demonstration of a localization of a drug-induced improvement in SWM performance in humans and has relevance for understanding the treatment of AD/HD.
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“Indeed, imaging studies have shown that methylphenidate enhances the efficiency of PFC activity both in healthy college students (Mehta et al., 2000) and in subjects with ADHD (Bush et al., 2008).”
From Catecholamine influences on prefrontal cortical function: Relevance to treatment of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder and related disorders (2011) · cites this paper as Mehta et al., 2000
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“Research additionally shows that ADHD is associated with decreased activity in frontal brain areas and increased activity in posterior (parietal and occipital) brain areas (Durston, 2003), and that MPH affects not only frontal but also posterior areas (Mehta et al., 2000).”
From Implementation Intentions Facilitate Response Inhibition in Children with ADHD (2008) · cites this paper as Mehta et al., 2000
In the citing paper
“Based on accumulating evidence that effects of methylphenidate and related drugs on cognition are baseline performance-dependent (Kimberg et al., 1997; Mattay et al., 2000; Mehta et al., 2000; Gibbs and D’Esposito, 2005; Tipper et al., 2005; Finke et al., 2010), changes in sustained attention following methylphenidate were assessed as a function of baseline A’ scores, independent of group.”
From A positron emission tomography study of nigro-striatal dopaminergic mechanisms underlying attention: implications for ADHD and its treatment (2013) · cites this paper as Mehta et al., 2000
In the citing paper
“The effects of methylphenidate and related stimulant drugs in healthy individuals have been shown to be baseline-dependent; i.e. those subjects with relatively low performance levels exhibit greater benefit after the drug (Naylor et al., 1985; Rogers et al., 1999; Mehta et al., 2000; Turner et al., 2003; Clatworthy et al., 2009).”
From A positron emission tomography study of nigro-striatal dopaminergic mechanisms underlying attention: implications for ADHD and its treatment (2013) · cites this paper as Mehta et al., 2000
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Methylphenidate significantly improves declarative memory functioning of adults with ADHD
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BackgroundA concise and stereoselective synthesis of (+/−)-erythro-methylphenidate
Russowsky, D., & Neto, B. A. D. (2003) · Tetrahedron Letters · doi:10.1016/s0040-4039(03)00420-9 · Cited by 27
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“could improve the proficiency and the range of various mental activities that they engage in, including working memory, attention, and emotion, to achieve better performance in many aspects of daily life (Mehta et al., 2000; Zaninotto et al., 2009; Eickenhorst et al., 2012; McKendrick et al., 2014).”
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“Converging evidence from animal and human studies indicates that dopamine (DA) plays a key role in Working Memory (WM) (Williams and Goldman-Rakic 1995; Murphy et al. 1996; Mattay et al. 2000; Mehta et al. 2000; Chudasama and Robbins 2004; Zhang et al. 2007; Sambataro et al. 2009; Cassidy et al. 2016).”
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Self-citationWaiting Impulsivity: The Influence of Acute Methylphenidate and Feedback
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Self-citationCognitive effects of methylphenidate and levodopa in healthy volunteers
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“The MPH dose was based on the lowest effective dose on cognitive function (Mehta et al. 2000; Moeller et al. 2014; Pauls et al. 2012).”
InfluentialWilens, T. E., & Kaminski, T. A. (2019) · Pediatric Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/j.pcl.2019.08.006 · Cited by 24
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“…(Owen et al., 1993, 1992), sleep deprivation (Wild, Nichols, Battista, Stojanoski, & Owen, 2018) and pharmacological intervention (Lange et al., 1992; Mehta et al., 2000), and their neural correlates have been well studied using functional neuroimaging in healthy adults (Owen et al., 1992).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationMDMA‐evoked changes in cerebral blood flow in living porcine brain: Correlation with hyperthermia
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“After methylphenidate intake, changes in cerebral hemodynamics were documented by functional MRI, SPECT, or PET in several cerebellar, subcortical, and cortical regions such as the cerebellar vermis,(38) the left parietal region,(18) the bilateral precentral gyri,(16) and the posterior parietal cortex.(20) Further reg…”
BackgroundMethodBehavioral response to methylphenidate challenge: Influence of early life parental care
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“Our results are consistent with previous PET studies (Mehta et al., 2000; Schweitzer et al., 2004; Volkow et al., 2008) supporting the hypothesis thatMP improves neuronal efficiency or signal–noise ratio, a welldocumented effect of dopamine ((Foote et al.”
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Early markers of cognitive enhancement: developing an implicit measure of cognitive performance
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“Since not all tasks are performed optimally in all situations [38], there is also the potential to improve performance in line with reduced effort, or increased efficiency of task-related processes as demonstrated with methylphenidate [39].”
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“…working memory has previously been related to performance changes after dopamine manipulation (Kimberg and D’Esposito 2003; Kimberg et al. 1997; Mehta et al. 2000), these effects have been inconsistent and sometimes contradictory and may be dependent on factors such as concentrations of drug…”
BackgroundResultSelf-citationMetilfenidato e melhoramento cognitivo em universitários
Monteiro, B. M. D. M., de Oliveira, K. M., Rodrigues, L. D. A., Fernandes, T. F., Silva, J. B. M., Viana, N. A. O., & da Gama, C. A. P. (2018) · SMAD Revista Eletrônica Saúde Mental Álcool e Drogas (Edição em Português) · doi:10.11606/issn.1806-6976.v13i4p232-242 · Cited by 23
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Quantitative EEG in Childhood Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and Learning Disabilities
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Nonstereotyped Responding in Positive Schizotypy after a Single Dose of Levodopa
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“Findings from animal (Arnsten, 1997; Williams and Goldman-Rakic, 1995) and human (Mehta et al, 2000) studies propose that dopaminergic actions follow an inverted Ushape function, with an improvement of cognitive performance from low to medium, but deterioration from medium to high doses.”
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“However, the benefits of methylphenidate are not pervasive; rather they appear to be mediated by baseline measures of cognitive performance and task novelty (Mehta et al., 2000).”
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“This feasibility trial suggests that in a TBI population, there is impairment of executive functioning among those who fulfilled the criteria of mild cognitive impairment, a view previously noted by others [63, 64].”
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Zhu, Y., Gao, B., Hua, J., Liu, W., Deng, Y., Zhang, L., Jiang, B., & Zang, Y. (2013) · Neuroscience Bulletin · doi:10.1007/s12264-013-1306-2 · Cited by 18
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Methylphenidate enhances implicit learning in healthy adults
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“In support of this, there is evidence that those with poorer baseline working memory capacity show larger positive effects of methylphenidate on cognitive performance (Agay et al., 2014; del Campo et al., 2013; Mehta et al., 2000; van der Schaaf et al., 2013).”
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Urban, K. R., & Gao, W. (2012) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/1087054712455504 · Cited by 18
“However, the drugs activate frontal and striatal regions in those individuals afflicted with ADHD, suggesting a deficit in frontostriatal connectivity or circuitry in ADHD (Mehta et al., 2000; Vaidya et al., 1998).”
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Blinking and schizotypal thinking
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“…fit with the model that dopaminergic actions follow an inverted U-shape function (animals: Williams and GoldmanRakic, 1995; Arnsten, 1997; humans: Mehta et al., 2000); behavioural measures improved (increased, in the present case) from low to medium doses and declined from medium to high doses.”
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Neurobiología del Trastorno de Hiperactividad
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Methylphenidate Decreased the Amount of Glucose Needed by the Brain to Perform a Cognitive Task
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Dopamine influences attentional rate modulation in Macaque posterior parietal cortex
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“Existing data suggest a wide margin of a safe dose–response range 10–90 mg (Mehta et al., 2000; Volkow et al., 2002).”
BackgroundExamining Reports and Policies on Cognitive Enhancement: Approaches, Rationale, and Recommendations
Outram, S. M., & Racine, É. (2011) · Accountability in Research · doi:10.1080/08989621.2011.606734 · Cited by 18
“Studies have been carried out with respect to the cognitive enhancing effects of both methylphenidate and modifinil in nominally healthy individuals (Elliott et al., 1997; Koelega, 1993; Kumar, 2008; Mehta et al., 2000, Minzenberg and Carter, 2008; Randall et al., 2005; Turner et al., 2003).”
BackgroundSase, A., Aher, Y. D., Saroja, S. R., Ganesan, M. K., Sase, S., Holy, M., Höger, H., Bakulev, V. A., Ecker, G. F., Langer, T., et al. (2015) · Neuropharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2015.07.039 · Cited by 15
Chavanon, M., Wacker, J., Leue, A., & Stemmler, G. (2006) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2006.07.001 · Cited by 19
Britton, G. B. (2011) · The International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1017/s1461145711000472 · Cited by 18
“In addition, the route of drug administration appears to be an important determining factor in consequent behaviour and neurochemistry.”
BackgroundMagalona, S., Rasetti, R., Chen, J., Chen, Q., Gold, I., Decot, H., Callicott, J. H., Berman, K. F., Apud, J. A., Weinberger, D. R., et al. (2013) · CNS Drugs · doi:10.1007/s40263-013-0082-x · Cited by 16
Evidence-based psychopharmacology for children and adolescents
Coghill, D. (2002) · Current Opinion in Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/00001504-200207000-00004 · Cited by 16
Bolfer, C. P. M. (2014) · Digital Library of Theses and Dissertations (Universidade de São Paulo) · doi:10.11606/t.5.2014.tde-24022015-115036 · Cited by 16
Silva, N. C. B. S., Petrella, A. F. M., Christopher, N., Marriott, C. F. S., Gill, D. P., Owen, A. M., & Petrella, R. J. (2021) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2021.643809 · Cited by 21
“, 2002) and the Token Search task used here has been used to detect increases in spatial working memory in children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder following a low dose of methylphenidate (Mehta et al., 2000).”
MethodSelf-citationSmith, C. T., Swift‐Scanlan, T., & Boettiger, C. A. (2013) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn_a_00501 · Cited by 15
“…enhanced 3-back performance in an n-back task, increased PPP1R1B mRNA expression in PFC (specifically the middle frontal gyrus) of postmortem human brain, and greater structural and functional connectivity between striatum and lateral PFC during n-back performance (Meyer-Lindenberg et al., 2007).”
Manza, P., Hu, S., Ide, J. S., Farr, O. M., Zhang, S., Leung, H., & Li, C. R. (2016) · Journal of Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1177/0269881115625102 · Cited by 16
“Compared with placebo, MPH reduced inferior parietal response in healthy adults searching for visuospatial targets (Mehta et al., 2000; Udo De Haes et al., 2007).”
BackgroundHernaus, D., Quaedflieg, C. W. E. M., Offermann, J. S., Santa, M. M. C., & van Amelsvoort, T. (2017) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nsx122 · Cited by 15
“, 2012), working memory span (Mehta et al., 2000; Hernaus et al., 2017) and in vivo measures of dopamine function (Cools et al.”
BackgroundMethylphenidate modulates interactions of anxiety with cognition
Gaillard, C., Lago, T. R., Gorka, A. X., Balderston, N. L., Fuchs, B. A., Reynolds, R. C., Grillon, C., & Ernst, M. (2021) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41398-021-01621-2 · Cited by 14
Bowers, H. E., Smith, D., de la Salle, S., Choueiry, J., Impey, D., Philippe, T. J., Dort, H., Millar, A., Daigle, M., Albert, P. R., et al. (2015) · Genes Brain & Behavior · doi:10.1111/gbb.12226 · Cited by 15
“2000) and humans (Kimberg et al. 1997; Mattay et al. 2000; Mehta et al. 2000) indicate that the effects of amphetamine and”
BackgroundEffects of methylphenidate on working memory in pigeons
Wright, F. K., & White, K. G. (2003) · Cognitive Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3758/cabn.3.4.300 · Cited by 15
“It is possible that the apparent inconsistencybetween the present results and those in studies that have found that MPH improved memory in humans (Aman et al., 1991; Camp-Bruno & Herting, 1994; Galynker et al., 1997; Mehta et al., 2000; Rapport et al., 1993) is due to species differences between samples.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialPreliminary investigation of the influence of dopamine regulating genes on social working memory
Dumontheil, I., Jensen, S., Wood, N. W., Meyer, M. L., Lieberman, M. D., & Blakemore, S. (2014) · Social Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/17470919.2014.925503 · Cited by 16
“Dopamine neurotransmission in the lateral prefrontal cortex (PFC) is known to be critically involved in WM processing (Levy & GoldmanRakic, 2000; Mehta et al., 2000).”
BackgroundTremblay, S., Pieper, F., Sachs, A. J., Joober, R., & Martínez-Trujillo, J. (2019) · eNeuro · doi:10.1523/eneuro.0371-18.2018 · Cited by 15
“Areas including the striatum, the supplementary motor area and the posterior parietal cortex are significantly modulated in healthy human subjects undergoing PET imaging following administration of clinically relevant doses of MPH (Mehta et al., 2000; Volkow et al., 2005).”
BackgroundZammit, N., & Muscat, R. (2019) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/ejn.14398 · Cited by 14
“Previous studies (e.g. Mehta et al., 2000) have demonstrated that the frontal and parietal regions are important neuroanatomical substrates for MPH‐induced WM improvement.”
Robbins, T. W. (2009) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195373035.003.0014 · Cited by 15
Self-citationD- amphetamine does not improve outcome of somatosensory training
Knecht, S., Imai, T., Kamping, S., Breitenstein, C., Henningsen, H., Lütkenhöner, B., & Ringelstein, E. B. (2001) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.57.12.2248 · Cited by 15
Methylphenidate as a causal test of translational and basic neural coding hypotheses
Ni, A. M., Bowes, B., Ruff, D. A., & Cohen, M. R. (2022) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2120529119 · Cited by 13
Hou, W., Sahakian, B. J., Langley, C., Yang, Y., Bethlehem, R. A. I., & Luo, Q. (2024) · Nature Mental Health · doi:10.1038/s44220-024-00251-z · Cited by 13
“In the literature, methylphenidate treatment has been shown to improve both executive 32 and motivational functions 33 , but the improvement of emotion dysregulation remains unclear 34 .”
Self-citationHildebrand, P., Königschulte, W., Gaber, T. J., Bubenzer‐Busch, S., Helmbold, K., Biskup, C. S., Langen, K., Fink, G. R., & Zepf, F. D. (2015) · Food & Nutrition Research · doi:10.3402/fnr.v59.26407 · Cited by 15
Lineweaver, T. T., Kercood, S., O'Keeffe, N. B., O’Brien, K. M., Massey, E. J., Campbell, S. J., & Pierce, J. N. (2012) · Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/13803395.2012.683854 · Cited by 14
“Previous research has demonstrated that stimulant medication improves attention and visual-spatial working memory ( Mehta, Calloway, & Sahakian, 2000 ; Mehta, Owen, et al, 2000 ; Turner et al, 2005 ).”
BackgroundThe Neurobiological Basis of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
Arnsten, A. F. T., Berridge, C. W., & McCracken, J. T. (2009) · Primary psychiatry · Cited by 14
Oral methylphenidate challenge selectively decreases putaminal T2 in healthy subjects
Silveri, M. M., Anderson, C. M., McNeil, J. F., Diaz, C. I., Lukas, S. E., Mendelson, J. H., Renshaw, P. F., & Kaufman, M. J. (2004) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2004.04.016 · Cited by 14
“Mehta et al. (2000) administered MPH (40 mg) to healthy subjects and did not observe basal ganglia perfusion changes.”
BackgroundInfluentialCognitive Enhancing Drugs in Sport: Current and Future Concerns
Smith, A. C. T., Stavros, C., & Westberg, K. (2020) · Substance Use & Misuse · doi:10.1080/10826084.2020.1775652 · Cited by 14
“Ritalin has been shown to augment problem-solving, various memory functions, and selective attention (Elliott et al., 1997; Linssen et al., 2012; Mehta et al., 2000).”
Ellis, K. A., Mehta, M. A., Murthy, P. J. N. V., McTavish, S. F. B., Nathan, P. J., & Grasby, P. M. (2007) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.20339 · Cited by 13
“, 2001], but the psychomotor stimulants methylphenidate and amphetamine (indirect catecholamine agonists) have been associated with task-related reductions in activity within the PFC [Mattay et al., 2000; Mehta et al., 2000; Schweitzer et al., 2004] and posterior parietal cortex [Mehta et al.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialSelf-citationDaniali, S., Nahavandi, A., Madjd, Z., Shahbazi, A., Niknazar, S., & Shahbazzadeh, D. (1996) · Europe PMC (PubMed Central) · doi:10.6091/ibj.1173.2013 · Cited by 13
Silk, T. J., Newman, D. P., Eramudugolla, R., Vance, A. L. A., & Bellgrove, M. A. (2014) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2014.01.015 · Cited by 14
“Fourth, MPH acts on areas of the brain that are important for directed attention, including the striatum and frontal and parietal cortices (Mehta et al., 2000; Rubia et al., 2009; Tomasi et al., 2011; Volkow et al., 1998).”
Distributed neural actions of anti-parkinsonian therapies as revealed by PET
Goerendt, I. K., Lawrence, A. D., Mehta, M. A., Stern, J. S., Odin, P., & Brooks, D. J. (2005) · Journal of Neural Transmission · doi:10.1007/s00702-005-0305-5 · Cited by 13
“…et al., 1992), the inferior frontal cortex following amphetamine in healthy volunteers (Kapur et al., 1994), of the cerebellum following methylphenidate in healthy volunteers (Mehta et al., 2000), and of the parietal cortex in PD following apomorphine (Jenkins et al., 1992) have all been presented.”
BackgroundSelf-citationDevelopment of dopaminergic genetic associations with visuospatial, verbal and social working memory
Dumontheil, I., Kilford, E. J., & Blakemore, S. (2019) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.12889 · Cited by 12
“…Wellcome; Jacobs Foundation K E Y W O R D S COMT, development, dopamine, genetic, social cognition, working memory Nathan, 2006; Fischer et al., 2010; McNab et al., 2009; Ziermans et al., 2012) and pharmacological studies in humans (e.g. Mehta et al., 2000; Müller, von Cramon, & Pollmann, 1998).”
BackgroundIvanov, I., Liu, X., Clerkin, S. M., Schulz, K. P., Fan, J., Friston, K. J., London, E. D., Schwartz, J., & Newcorn, J. H. (2014) · European Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2014.01.017 · Cited by 14
“Based on results from other neuroimaging studies with MPH challenge (Vaidya et al., 1998; Mehta et al., 2000; Knutson et al., 2004; Müller et al., 2005; Dodds et al., 2008; Tomasi et al., 2011), we expected less brain activation with MPH treatment than with placebo.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialHopkins, P. D., & Fiser, H. L. (2016) · Journal of Business Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10551-016-3182-y · Cited by 12
“• Problem-solving —methylphenidate has been shown to improve problem-solving skills in novel problems in healthy subjects (Mehta 2000).”
BackgroundBarnett, M., & Reid, L. M. (2019) · Brain Injury · doi:10.1080/02699052.2019.1667538 · Cited by 12
Newsome, M. R., Scheibel, R. S., Seignourel, P. J., Steinberg, J. L., Troyanskaya, M., Li, X., & Levin, H. S. (2009) · Brain Imaging and Behavior · doi:10.1007/s11682-009-9072-5 · Cited by 12
Neurophysiologie des Neuro-Enhancements: Möglichkeiten und Grenzen
Quednow, B. B. (2010) · Zurich Open Repository and Archive (University of Zurich) · doi:10.5167/uzh-39872 · Cited by 12
Pharmacological enhancement of performance in doctors
Sugden, C., Aggarwal, R., Housden, C. R., Sahakian, B. J., & Darzi, A. W. (2010) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.c2542 · Cited by 12
Self-citationEffects of Methylphenidate on the Dopamine Transporter and Beyond
Zetterström, T., Quansah, E., & Grootveld, M. C. (2022) · Current topics in behavioral neurosciences · doi:10.1007/7854_2022_333 · Cited by 11
Aversi‐Ferreira, T. A., de Araújo, M. F. P., Lopes, D. B., & Nishijo, H. (2010) · Dementia & Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1590/s1980-57642010dn40300005 · Cited by 11
Metadata
- Authors
- Mehta, M. A., Owen, A. M., Sahakian, B. J., Mavaddat, N., Pickard, J. D., & Robbins, T. W.
- Affiliations
- University of Cambridge (GB)
- MRC Cognition and Brain Sciences Unit (GB)
- Addenbrooke's Hospital (GB)
- ORCID
- Venue
- The Journal of Neuroscience
- Publisher
- Society for Neuroscience
- Published
- 2000-03-15
- Volume
- 20
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- RC65-RC65
- ISSN
- 0270-6474 (ISSN-L)
- 1529-2401
- PMC
- PMC6772505
- OpenAlex
- W2170595219
- Cited by
- 608
- References
- 31
- Citations by year
- 2026: 7 · 2025: 9 · 2024: 16 · 2023: 8 · 2022: 9 · 2021: 14 · 2020: 26 · 2019: 21 · 2018: 13 · 2017: 15 · 2016: 27 · 2015: 29 · 2014: 26 · 2013: 34 · 2012: 42
- FWCI
- 11.63
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Journal of Neuroscience (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-sa)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Research Portal (King's College London) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Wellcome Trust
- Medical Research Council
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neurotransmitter Receptor Influence on Behavior
- Keywords
- methylphenidate, working memory, spatial working memory, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, regional cerebral blood flow, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, posterior parietal cortex, catecholamine agonists, working memory capacity
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Central Nervous System Stimulants, Cerebrovascular Circulation, Frontal Lobe, Humans, Functional Laterality, Male, Memory, Short-Term, Methylphenidate, Parietal Lobe, Tomography, Emission-Computed, Adrenergic Uptake Inhibitors, Dopamine Uptake Inhibitors
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