The DOI matches its Crossref record; 98 of the 98 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 3 of the 55 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters
Open accessAbstract
Urban daughters have benefited from the demographic pattern produced by China's one–child policy. In the system of patrilineal kinship that has long characterized most of Chinese society, parents had little incentive to invest in their daughters. Singleton daughters, however, enjoy unprecedented parental support because they do not have to compete with brothers for parental investment. Low fertility enabled mothers to get paid work and, thus, gain the ability to demonstrate their filiality by providing their own parents with financial support. Because their mothers have already proven that daughters can provide their parents with old age support, and because singletons have no brothers for their parents to favor, daughters have more power than ever before to defy disadvantageous gender norms while using equivocal ones to their own advantage. [Keywords: gender, family, fertility, demography, China]
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Integrity signals
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Verification
Claims the paper makes
84 Own interpretation · 41 No basis given · 30 Own result · 15 Sources not found · 9 Not checked yet · 5 No full text of the sources · 5 Own method · 2 Partly supported · 1 Couldn’t confirm · accuracy not yet measured
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“According to China's 1990 census, there were 1.083 males for every female born between 1980 and 1984 (Coale and Banister 1994:461), the period when most of my students were born.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > CONCLUSION
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Coale and Banister 1994:461 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The section on ratios by birth cohort says the authors use the 1990 census to examine male-to-female ratios, supporting the claim’s general subject. But the passage on Table 3 identifies its figures as chiefly from fertility surveys, not the 1990 census, and lists 1.087 for births in 1980–1984; it lists 1.083 for 1978–1982. The retrieved passages therefore do not support the claimed figure and source of that figure. (LLM, conf=0.78)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Partly supported
The cited sources that could be checked couldn’t confirm or dispute this claim.
In the paper
“Survey respondents' mothers were far more likely than their fathers to do household chores.12”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > CHANGING DOMESTIC ROLES
What the sources say
- Could not verifycites [12] 12. Coale, Ansley J., and Judith Banister 1994 Five Decades of Missing Females in China. Demography 31(3):459-^79. sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The section 'Data on Sex Ratios from the Fertility Surveys' describes respondents’ birth histories and children’s survival, not their parents’ household chores. The passage about tasks associated with the female role in the household concerns daughters helping care for siblings; it does not compare respondents’ mothers with their fathers. Searches for mothers, fathers, housework, and chores found no relevant comparison in our copy. Page numbers were not available. (LLM, conf=0.77)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Could not verify
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Only two of the 31 families I befriended had more than one child.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > METHODS AND REPRESENTATIONS
plainn = 31- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Only six percent of my survey respondents (N = 2,167) had siblings.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > METHODS AND REPRESENTATIONS
plainn = 2,167- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Survey respondents' self-reports about siblings, parental employment, living arrangements, and other family characteristics are accurate enough to support the paper's findings.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Grandmothers were far less likely than their husbands or children to work as cadres, managers, or white-collar workers at any point in their lives.5”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > THE LEGACY OF LOW-FERTILITY MOTHERS
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Survey respondents' self-reports about siblings, parental employment, living arrangements, and other family characteristics are accurate enough to support the paper's findings.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The maternity leaves and medical problems caused by frequent childbearing also hindered the careers of those women who did paid work during the 1950s and 1960s.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > THE LEGACY OF LOW-FERTILITY MOTHERS
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“They knew from their own experience that daughters could fulfill the filial obligations once reserved for sons.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > THE ONE-CHILD POLICY The primary aim of China's one-child policy is not to empower women but, rather, to promote modernization by reducing the number of people who must compete for resources, both in the family and the nation.While the goal of emancipating women from the burdens of high fertility was prominent in campaigns to promote the use of contraceptive technology during the 1950s and 1960s, government propaganda promoting the one-child policy that began in 1979 tended to mention women's empowerment only as an auxiliary benefit of the policy (White 1994).Contraceptive technology has enjoyed official approval in the People's Republic of China since 1954, although it did not become widely available until 1962.Family planning was voluntary until 1970, when Premier Zhou Enlai initiated a population control campaign with paramount leader Mao Zedong's blessing.This campaign encouraged families to have no more than two children, but it was unevenly enforced.Strictly enforced fertility limitation began in 1978, when government officials set a population target of no more than 1.2 billion people by the year 2000, and decided that a nationwide one-child policy was the only way to avoid exceeding this target (Liu Zheng 1981;Peng Xizhe 1991).Despite widespread rural resistance that led to a de facto two-child policy in the countryside (Greenhalgh 1994a), China had close to its target population in 2000, when a nationwide census counted a population of 1.27 billion (Chu 2001).In 1970, when population control policies began, China's total fertility rate was six births per woman; in 1980, two years after the start of the one-child policy, China's total fertility rate was down to two births per woman (Coale and Chen 1987;Whyte and Gu 1987:473).Farmers had higher fertility than urban residents even before the one-child policy, and two-child families are the norm in rural areas, where farmers' overwhelming desire for sons who can serve as labor resources and old-age insurance has made the one-child policy difficult to enforce (Greenhalgh 1990(Greenhalgh , 1994a;;Greenhalgh et al. 1994;White 1987White , 2000)).In urban areas, however, the vast majority of women who married after 1978 have only one child.Compliance with the policy has remained high in cities like Dalian even during the 1990s, when the costs of violating the policy were reduced by rising incomes and the decline of the state sector and its surveillance and enforcement mechanisms. Much of the literature on China's one-child policy has emphasized that compulsory fertility limitation harms women.American opponents of China's one-child policy have focused on abuses associated with the policy, such as cadres killing babies or physically forcing women to undergo sterilizations or abortions (Aird 1990;Mosher 1993).
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Yet many of my students' grandmothers told me that they were too busy bearing and rearing children to take advantage of these opportunities.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > THE LEGACY OF LOW-FERTILITY MOTHERS
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Among my survey respondents, 32 percent (N = 1,215) of girls indicated that they hoped to remain childless all their lives.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
hedgedn = 1,215- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Survey respondents' self-reports about siblings, parental employment, living arrangements, and other family characteristics are accurate enough to support the paper's findings.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Grandmothers were far more likely than their husbands or children to have remained unemployed all their lives.4”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > THE LEGACY OF LOW-FERTILITY MOTHERS
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Survey respondents' self-reports about siblings, parental employment, living arrangements, and other family characteristics are accurate enough to support the paper's findings.
- Probably not a substantial claim. 38
- It may state two separate claims as one. 72
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Demographers have found an increasingly skewed Chinese gender ratio, which may result from female infanticide, parents' refusal to register daughters, parents' abandonment or lethal neglect of daughters, sex selection through selective abortion, or some combination of these factors (Arnold and Liu Zhaoxiang 1986;Coale and Banister 1994;Johnson 1996;Li Yongping and Peng Xizhe 2000;Zeng et al. 1993”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > THE ONE-CHILD POLICY The primary aim of China's one-child policy is not to empower women but, rather, to promote modernization by reducing the number of people who must compete for resources, both in the family and the nation.While the goal of emancipating women from the burdens of high fertility was prominent in campaigns to promote the use of contraceptive technology during the 1950s and 1960s, government propaganda promoting the one-child policy that began in 1979 tended to mention women's empowerment only as an auxiliary benefit of the policy (White 1994).Contraceptive technology has enjoyed official approval in the People's Republic of China since 1954, although it did not become widely available until 1962.Family planning was voluntary until 1970, when Premier Zhou Enlai initiated a population control campaign with paramount leader Mao Zedong's blessing.This campaign encouraged families to have no more than two children, but it was unevenly enforced.Strictly enforced fertility limitation began in 1978, when government officials set a population target of no more than 1.2 billion people by the year 2000, and decided that a nationwide one-child policy was the only way to avoid exceeding this target (Liu Zheng 1981;Peng Xizhe 1991).Despite widespread rural resistance that led to a de facto two-child policy in the countryside (Greenhalgh 1994a), China had close to its target population in 2000, when a nationwide census counted a population of 1.27 billion (Chu 2001).In 1970, when population control policies began, China's total fertility rate was six births per woman; in 1980, two years after the start of the one-child policy, China's total fertility rate was down to two births per woman (Coale and Chen 1987;Whyte and Gu 1987:473).Farmers had higher fertility than urban residents even before the one-child policy, and two-child families are the norm in rural areas, where farmers' overwhelming desire for sons who can serve as labor resources and old-age insurance has made the one-child policy difficult to enforce (Greenhalgh 1990(Greenhalgh , 1994a;;Greenhalgh et al. 1994;White 1987White , 2000)).In urban areas, however, the vast majority of women who married after 1978 have only one child.Compliance with the policy has remained high in cities like Dalian even during the 1990s, when the costs of violating the policy were reduced by rising incomes and the decline of the state sector and its surveillance and enforcement mechanisms. Much of the literature on China's one-child policy has emphasized that compulsory fertility limitation harms women.American opponents of China's one-child policy have focused on abuses associated with the policy, such as cadres killing babies or physically forcing women to undergo sterilizations or abortions (Aird 1990;Mosher 1993).
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Arnold and Liu Zhaoxiang 1986 source
- Partly supportedcites Coale and Banister 1994 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
Split into 2 atoms — 1 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Johnson 1996 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Most Dalian parents I knew told me that it was acceptable to have just one child, even if that child was female, and some even told me they were glad they had daughters instead of sons.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > THE ONE-CHILD POLICY The primary aim of China's one-child policy is not to empower women but, rather, to promote modernization by reducing the number of people who must compete for resources, both in the family and the nation.While the goal of emancipating women from the burdens of high fertility was prominent in campaigns to promote the use of contraceptive technology during the 1950s and 1960s, government propaganda promoting the one-child policy that began in 1979 tended to mention women's empowerment only as an auxiliary benefit of the policy (White 1994).Contraceptive technology has enjoyed official approval in the People's Republic of China since 1954, although it did not become widely available until 1962.Family planning was voluntary until 1970, when Premier Zhou Enlai initiated a population control campaign with paramount leader Mao Zedong's blessing.This campaign encouraged families to have no more than two children, but it was unevenly enforced.Strictly enforced fertility limitation began in 1978, when government officials set a population target of no more than 1.2 billion people by the year 2000, and decided that a nationwide one-child policy was the only way to avoid exceeding this target (Liu Zheng 1981;Peng Xizhe 1991).Despite widespread rural resistance that led to a de facto two-child policy in the countryside (Greenhalgh 1994a), China had close to its target population in 2000, when a nationwide census counted a population of 1.27 billion (Chu 2001).In 1970, when population control policies began, China's total fertility rate was six births per woman; in 1980, two years after the start of the one-child policy, China's total fertility rate was down to two births per woman (Coale and Chen 1987;Whyte and Gu 1987:473).Farmers had higher fertility than urban residents even before the one-child policy, and two-child families are the norm in rural areas, where farmers' overwhelming desire for sons who can serve as labor resources and old-age insurance has made the one-child policy difficult to enforce (Greenhalgh 1990(Greenhalgh , 1994a;;Greenhalgh et al. 1994;White 1987White , 2000)).In urban areas, however, the vast majority of women who married after 1978 have only one child.Compliance with the policy has remained high in cities like Dalian even during the 1990s, when the costs of violating the policy were reduced by rising incomes and the decline of the state sector and its surveillance and enforcement mechanisms. Much of the literature on China's one-child policy has emphasized that compulsory fertility limitation harms women.American opponents of China's one-child policy have focused on abuses associated with the policy, such as cadres killing babies or physically forcing women to undergo sterilizations or abortions (Aird 1990;Mosher 1993).
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While medical techniques for detecting the sex of fetuses have been available (although illegal) in Dalian since the 1980s, the mothers of boys I tutored denied ever having used abortion to avoid having daughters and maintained that only farmers would do this.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > THE ONE-CHILD POLICY The primary aim of China's one-child policy is not to empower women but, rather, to promote modernization by reducing the number of people who must compete for resources, both in the family and the nation.While the goal of emancipating women from the burdens of high fertility was prominent in campaigns to promote the use of contraceptive technology during the 1950s and 1960s, government propaganda promoting the one-child policy that began in 1979 tended to mention women's empowerment only as an auxiliary benefit of the policy (White 1994).Contraceptive technology has enjoyed official approval in the People's Republic of China since 1954, although it did not become widely available until 1962.Family planning was voluntary until 1970, when Premier Zhou Enlai initiated a population control campaign with paramount leader Mao Zedong's blessing.This campaign encouraged families to have no more than two children, but it was unevenly enforced.Strictly enforced fertility limitation began in 1978, when government officials set a population target of no more than 1.2 billion people by the year 2000, and decided that a nationwide one-child policy was the only way to avoid exceeding this target (Liu Zheng 1981;Peng Xizhe 1991).Despite widespread rural resistance that led to a de facto two-child policy in the countryside (Greenhalgh 1994a), China had close to its target population in 2000, when a nationwide census counted a population of 1.27 billion (Chu 2001).In 1970, when population control policies began, China's total fertility rate was six births per woman; in 1980, two years after the start of the one-child policy, China's total fertility rate was down to two births per woman (Coale and Chen 1987;Whyte and Gu 1987:473).Farmers had higher fertility than urban residents even before the one-child policy, and two-child families are the norm in rural areas, where farmers' overwhelming desire for sons who can serve as labor resources and old-age insurance has made the one-child policy difficult to enforce (Greenhalgh 1990(Greenhalgh , 1994a;;Greenhalgh et al. 1994;White 1987White , 2000)).In urban areas, however, the vast majority of women who married after 1978 have only one child.Compliance with the policy has remained high in cities like Dalian even during the 1990s, when the costs of violating the policy were reduced by rising incomes and the decline of the state sector and its surveillance and enforcement mechanisms. Much of the literature on China's one-child policy has emphasized that compulsory fertility limitation harms women.American opponents of China's one-child policy have focused on abuses associated with the policy, such as cadres killing babies or physically forcing women to undergo sterilizations or abortions (Aird 1990;Mosher 1993).
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Parents' statements about not using sex-selective abortion or other abuses are truthful enough to support the claim that such abuses did not occur in Dalian.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“I suspect that most urban singletons held this belief, since 94 percent (N = 2,192) of survey respondents indicated that they were tutored or took private classes at some point in their lives, and I seldom heard of urban singletons who thought they had no possible chance of upward mobility.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > METHODS AND REPRESENTATIONS
hedgedn = 2,192- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Survey respondents' self-reports about siblings, parental employment, living arrangements, and other family characteristics are accurate enough to support the paper's findings.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“My students' grandparents told me that, in their youth, daughters could not live with their parents after marriage or provide nursing care or economic support for their elderly parents.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > THE LEGACY OF LOW-FERTILITY MOTHERS
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While 1 heard rumors about farmers committing infanticide, physically forcing women to undergo sterilizations or abortions, or abandoning or lethally neglecting daughters, I never heard of such abuses occurring in Dalian.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > THE ONE-CHILD POLICY The primary aim of China's one-child policy is not to empower women but, rather, to promote modernization by reducing the number of people who must compete for resources, both in the family and the nation.While the goal of emancipating women from the burdens of high fertility was prominent in campaigns to promote the use of contraceptive technology during the 1950s and 1960s, government propaganda promoting the one-child policy that began in 1979 tended to mention women's empowerment only as an auxiliary benefit of the policy (White 1994).Contraceptive technology has enjoyed official approval in the People's Republic of China since 1954, although it did not become widely available until 1962.Family planning was voluntary until 1970, when Premier Zhou Enlai initiated a population control campaign with paramount leader Mao Zedong's blessing.This campaign encouraged families to have no more than two children, but it was unevenly enforced.Strictly enforced fertility limitation began in 1978, when government officials set a population target of no more than 1.2 billion people by the year 2000, and decided that a nationwide one-child policy was the only way to avoid exceeding this target (Liu Zheng 1981;Peng Xizhe 1991).Despite widespread rural resistance that led to a de facto two-child policy in the countryside (Greenhalgh 1994a), China had close to its target population in 2000, when a nationwide census counted a population of 1.27 billion (Chu 2001).In 1970, when population control policies began, China's total fertility rate was six births per woman; in 1980, two years after the start of the one-child policy, China's total fertility rate was down to two births per woman (Coale and Chen 1987;Whyte and Gu 1987:473).Farmers had higher fertility than urban residents even before the one-child policy, and two-child families are the norm in rural areas, where farmers' overwhelming desire for sons who can serve as labor resources and old-age insurance has made the one-child policy difficult to enforce (Greenhalgh 1990(Greenhalgh , 1994a;;Greenhalgh et al. 1994;White 1987White , 2000)).In urban areas, however, the vast majority of women who married after 1978 have only one child.Compliance with the policy has remained high in cities like Dalian even during the 1990s, when the costs of violating the policy were reduced by rising incomes and the decline of the state sector and its surveillance and enforcement mechanisms. Much of the literature on China's one-child policy has emphasized that compulsory fertility limitation harms women.American opponents of China's one-child policy have focused on abuses associated with the policy, such as cadres killing babies or physically forcing women to undergo sterilizations or abortions (Aird 1990;Mosher 1993).
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Parents' statements about not using sex-selective abortion or other abuses are truthful enough to support the claim that such abuses did not occur in Dalian.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In Dalian, women prefer to marry men of higher status, while men prefer to marry women of the same status.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > MARRIAGE
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Many of my students' mothers provided monetary support and nursing care for their own elderly parents (often getting their husbands to help), most who performed annual worship rituals for their husbands' deceased parents also did so for their own deceased parents, and some inherited money, goods, and housing from their parents.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > THE LEGACY OF LOW-FERTILITY MOTHERS
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Several all-female private college-preparatory high schools (third-rate) were established in the Dalian area during the 1990s, but no all-male schools.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > EDUCATION AND WORK
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Men and women who lost their jobs tended to reduce the financial support they provided their parents and let wealthier siblings pick up the slack.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > THE LEGACY OF LOW-FERTILITY MOTHERS
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Most of the boys and about a quarter of the girls in my survey sample indicated that girls had an easier time getting jobs than boys did.8”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > EDUCATION AND WORK
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [8] 8. Bourdieu, Pierre 1977 Outlineof a Theory of Practice. R.Nice, trans. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2001 Masculine Domination. Stanford: Stanford University Press. source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This strategy gained popularity after the one-child policy made it a necessity for half of my students' families.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > DEALING STRATEGICALLY WITH GENDER NORMS
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“According to teachers, students, and education officials, only the small minority of schools classified as keypoint college prep schools (first-rate) had more boys than girls.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > EDUCATION AND WORK
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The same economic reforms that encourage state enterprises to discriminate against middle-aged women have also created service and light-industry jobs that favor young women.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > EDUCATION AND WORK
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“At the second-rate college prep high school I studied, 52 percent of students (N = 781) were female and 48 percent were male.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > EDUCATION AND WORK
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While 12 percent of my survey respondents (N = 2,187) were living with at least one paternal grandparent at the time of the survey, 5 percent (N = 2,188) were living with at least one maternal grandparent.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > THE LEGACY OF LOW-FERTILITY MOTHERS
plainn = 2,187- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Survey respondents' self-reports about siblings, parental employment, living arrangements, and other family characteristics are accurate enough to support the paper's findings.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“According to survey respondents, 25 percent of their mothers (N = 2,190) and 12 percent of their fathers (N = 2,190) have been laid off or given early retirement.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > THE LEGACY OF LOW-FERTILITY MOTHERS
plainn = 2,190- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Survey respondents' self-reports about siblings, parental employment, living arrangements, and other family characteristics are accurate enough to support the paper's findings.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“My students and their parents often talked about people's expectations of how males and females would behave.They were not interested in debating the extent to which such expectations corresponded with the way people actually behaved.Rather, they focused on weighing the costs and benefits of disregarding, invoking, transforming, or conforming to particular expectations on particular occasions.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > DEALING STRATEGICALLY WITH GENDER NORMS
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Elderly parents who were widowed or disabled usually moved into an adult child's household.Which child they ended up living with depended less on gender than on interpersonal dynamics and on the amount of time and living space each child's household could spare.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > THE LEGACY OF LOW-FERTILITY MOTHERS
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Average percentile ranks of singleton respondents by gender and school: girls grades 8-9 (N = 361), 57th percentile; boys grades 8-9 (N = 325), 42nd percentile; girls in college prep high school, grades 10-12 (N = 262), 54th percentile; boys in college prep high school, grades 10-12 (N = 201), 44th percentile.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > CONCLUSION
plainn = 361- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Dalian men who cannot find local brides can acquire brides from the countryside, where women are eager to gain urban residency through marriage.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > MARRIAGE
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Percentages of respondents (girls [N -1,159], boys [N = 839]) who want to do various amounts of housework: 25 percent of girls and 17 percent of boys want to do more housework than their spouse; 63 percent of girls and 48 percent of boys want to do half the housework; 12 percent of girls and 35 percent of boys want to do less housework than their spouse.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > CONCLUSION
plainn = 839- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“China's social structure is still characterized by gender inequality, particularly at the upper levels of the academic and socioeconomic hierarchies.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > CONCLUSION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Percent of relatives who were ever cadres, managers, or whitecollar workers, according to survey respondents: paternal grandmother (N = 1,871) 14 percent, maternal grandmother (N = 1,875) 15 percent, paternal grandfather (N = 1,863) 42 percent, maternal grandfather (N = 1,871) 45 percent, mother (N = 2,009) 38 percent, father (N= 1,984) 48 percent.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > CONCLUSION
plainn = 1,871- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Percent of relatives who never did paid work, according to survey respondents: paternal grandmother (N = 1,716) 36 percent, maternal grandmother (N = 1,493) 34 percent, paternal grandfather (N = 1,651) 0 percent, maternal grandfather (N = 1,748) 0 percent, mother (N = 1,995) 0 percent, father (N= 1,964) 0 percent.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > CONCLUSION
plainn = 1,716- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Percentages of mothers and fathers who did various kinds of household chores, according to survey respondents: 94 percent of mothers (N = 2,198) and 41 percent of fathers (N = 2,199) cleaned; 94 percent of mothers (N = 2,195) and 42 percent of fathers (N = 2,194) did laundry; 94 percent of mothers (N = 2,196) and 54 percent of fathers (N = 2,196) shopped for groceries; and 88 percent of mothers (N”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > CONCLUSION
plainn = 2,198- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“On my survey, 38 percent of female respondents (N = 1,254) and 29 percent of male respondents (N = 852) indicated that they had at least one parent who had not lived in the countryside, while 62 percent of female respondents and 71 percent of male respondents indicated that both parents had lived in the countryside.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > CONCLUSION
hedgedn = 1,254- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Parents of singletons only complain about their children's gender when they believe their children are conforming to disadvantageous gender norms, not when their children are conforming to advantageous ones.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > CONCLUSION
plaindirectSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In my students' parents' generation, men are expected to earn more, have better jobs, and do less housework than their wives, who are expected to take primary responsibility for domestic work, usually at the expense of their careers.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > CHANGING DOMESTIC ROLES
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Low fertility enabled mothers to get paid work and, thus, gain the ability to demonstrate their filiality by providing their own parents with financial support.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > Abstract
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In cities like Dalian, however, it is dear that daughters would have been less able to take advantage of available opportunities if they had to compete with brothers for family resources, and if their mothers had not demonstrated that women can support their parents in old age.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > Abstract
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The experiences of the families in Dalian are sufficiently representative of urban Chinese families for the paper's conclusions about urban daughters.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“All of these factors are likely to be both causes and effects of low fertility.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the system of patrilineal kinship that has long characterized most of Chinese society, parents had little incentive to invest in their daughters.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > Abstract
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A society's fertility rate usually correlates with the degree to which it has adopted a modern economy in which child mortality is low, most people live in urban environments in which children consume a lot more than they produce, most mothers as well as fathers work at jobs incompatible with childrearing, and extensive education is widespread for both genders and seen as the road to socioeconomic”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Because their mothers have already proven that daughters can provide their parents with old age support, and because singletons have no brothers for their parents to favor, daughters have more power than ever before to defy disadvantageous gender norms while using equivocal ones to their own advantage.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > Abstract
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Girls born after China's one-child policy began in 1979, however, have more power to challenge detrimental gender norms and use helpful ones than ever before, thanks to the decline of patriliny and the absence of brothers for their parents to favor.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > Abstract
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The experiences of the families in Dalian are sufficiently representative of urban Chinese families for the paper's conclusions about urban daughters.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although I argue that low fertility has been a key factor in the empowerment of urban Chinese daughters, I do not claim that it is the only necessary and sufficient factor.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > Abstract
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The effects of China's one-child policy on mothers are equivocal.On one hand, it has freed mothers from heavy childbearing and child-rearing burdens; on the other hand, it has deprived mothers of the freedom to choose their family size and subjected them to intrusive state surveillance and enforcement tactics.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Low resistance to the one-child policy in cities like Dalian can be attributed to the rapid pace with which people in such cities have internalized the same cultural model of modernization that has caused fertility decline in many societies worldwide.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Still, Rosaldo's argument is useful for understanding gender systems in societies like China, in which gender inequality has long been based on distinctions between a superior public sphere dominated by men and a subordinate domestic sphere associated with women.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Farmers had higher fertility than urban residents even before the one-child policy, and two-child families are the norm in rural areas, where farmers' overwhelming desire for sons who can serve as labor resources and old-age insurance has made the one-child policy difficult to enforce (Greenhalgh 1990(Greenhalgh , 1994a;;Greenhalgh et al. 1994;White 1987White , 2000)).”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > THE ONE-CHILD POLICY The primary aim of China's one-child policy is not to empower women but, rather, to promote modernization by reducing the number of people who must compete for resources, both in the family and the nation.While the goal of emancipating women from the burdens of high fertility was prominent in campaigns to promote the use of contraceptive technology during the 1950s and 1960s, government propaganda promoting the one-child policy that began in 1979 tended to mention women's empowerment only as an auxiliary benefit of the policy (White 1994).Contraceptive technology has enjoyed official approval in the People's Republic of China since 1954, although it did not become widely available until 1962.Family planning was voluntary until 1970, when Premier Zhou Enlai initiated a population control campaign with paramount leader Mao Zedong's blessing.This campaign encouraged families to have no more than two children, but it was unevenly enforced.Strictly enforced fertility limitation began in 1978, when government officials set a population target of no more than 1.2 billion people by the year 2000, and decided that a nationwide one-child policy was the only way to avoid exceeding this target (Liu Zheng 1981;Peng Xizhe 1991).Despite widespread rural resistance that led to a de facto two-child policy in the countryside (Greenhalgh 1994a), China had close to its target population in 2000, when a nationwide census counted a population of 1.27 billion (Chu 2001).In 1970, when population control policies began, China's total fertility rate was six births per woman; in 1980, two years after the start of the one-child policy, China's total fertility rate was down to two births per woman (Coale and Chen 1987;Whyte and Gu 1987:473).Farmers had higher fertility than urban residents even before the one-child policy, and two-child families are the norm in rural areas, where farmers' overwhelming desire for sons who can serve as labor resources and old-age insurance has made the one-child policy difficult to enforce (Greenhalgh 1990(Greenhalgh , 1994a;;Greenhalgh et al. 1994;White 1987White , 2000)).In urban areas, however, the vast majority of women who married after 1978 have only one child.Compliance with the policy has remained high in cities like Dalian even during the 1990s, when the costs of violating the policy were reduced by rising incomes and the decline of the state sector and its surveillance and enforcement mechanisms. Much of the literature on China's one-child policy has emphasized that compulsory fertility limitation harms women.American opponents of China's one-child policy have focused on abuses associated with the policy, such as cadres killing babies or physically forcing women to undergo sterilizations or abortions (Aird 1990;Mosher 1993).
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Greenhalgh 1990
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Greenhalgh 1994a
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Greenhalgh et al. 1994 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Almost all Dalian teenagers attended primary and junior high school and most went on to secondary education as well (Dalian Shi Jiaoyu Zhi Bian Zuan Bangongshi [Dalian City Education Records Compilation Office] 1999:219-221, 394-426).”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > METHODS AND REPRESENTATIONS
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Dalian Shi Jiaoyu Zhi Bian Zuan Bangongshi 1999:219-221, 394-426
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Much of the literature on China's one-child policy has emphasized that compulsory fertility limitation harms women.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > THE ONE-CHILD POLICY The primary aim of China's one-child policy is not to empower women but, rather, to promote modernization by reducing the number of people who must compete for resources, both in the family and the nation.While the goal of emancipating women from the burdens of high fertility was prominent in campaigns to promote the use of contraceptive technology during the 1950s and 1960s, government propaganda promoting the one-child policy that began in 1979 tended to mention women's empowerment only as an auxiliary benefit of the policy (White 1994).Contraceptive technology has enjoyed official approval in the People's Republic of China since 1954, although it did not become widely available until 1962.Family planning was voluntary until 1970, when Premier Zhou Enlai initiated a population control campaign with paramount leader Mao Zedong's blessing.This campaign encouraged families to have no more than two children, but it was unevenly enforced.Strictly enforced fertility limitation began in 1978, when government officials set a population target of no more than 1.2 billion people by the year 2000, and decided that a nationwide one-child policy was the only way to avoid exceeding this target (Liu Zheng 1981;Peng Xizhe 1991).Despite widespread rural resistance that led to a de facto two-child policy in the countryside (Greenhalgh 1994a), China had close to its target population in 2000, when a nationwide census counted a population of 1.27 billion (Chu 2001).In 1970, when population control policies began, China's total fertility rate was six births per woman; in 1980, two years after the start of the one-child policy, China's total fertility rate was down to two births per woman (Coale and Chen 1987;Whyte and Gu 1987:473).Farmers had higher fertility than urban residents even before the one-child policy, and two-child families are the norm in rural areas, where farmers' overwhelming desire for sons who can serve as labor resources and old-age insurance has made the one-child policy difficult to enforce (Greenhalgh 1990(Greenhalgh , 1994a;;Greenhalgh et al. 1994;White 1987White , 2000)).In urban areas, however, the vast majority of women who married after 1978 have only one child.Compliance with the policy has remained high in cities like Dalian even during the 1990s, when the costs of violating the policy were reduced by rising incomes and the decline of the state sector and its surveillance and enforcement mechanisms. Much of the literature on China's one-child policy has emphasized that compulsory fertility limitation harms women.American opponents of China's one-child policy have focused on abuses associated with the policy, such as cadres killing babies or physically forcing women to undergo sterilizations or abortions (Aird 1990;Mosher 1993).
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The fertility transition has also enabled urban Chinese daughters to receive heavy parental investment and remain filial all their lives-an ideal that has long been valued by Chinese people of both genders but was usually only attainable by men.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The experiences of the families in Dalian are sufficiently representative of urban Chinese families for the paper's conclusions about urban daughters.
In the paper
“My findings are not representative of the experiences of the highest-ranked university graduates who dominate intellectual discourse, or of the rural citizens who constituted 64 percent (China Population Information and Research Center 2001) of the Chinese population in 2000.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > METHODS AND REPRESENTATIONS
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites China Population Information and Research Center 2001
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“In 1970, when population control policies began, China's total fertility rate was six births per woman; in 1980, two years after the start of the one-child policy, China's total fertility rate was down to two births per woman (Coale and Chen 1987;Whyte and Gu 1987:473).”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > THE ONE-CHILD POLICY The primary aim of China's one-child policy is not to empower women but, rather, to promote modernization by reducing the number of people who must compete for resources, both in the family and the nation.While the goal of emancipating women from the burdens of high fertility was prominent in campaigns to promote the use of contraceptive technology during the 1950s and 1960s, government propaganda promoting the one-child policy that began in 1979 tended to mention women's empowerment only as an auxiliary benefit of the policy (White 1994).Contraceptive technology has enjoyed official approval in the People's Republic of China since 1954, although it did not become widely available until 1962.Family planning was voluntary until 1970, when Premier Zhou Enlai initiated a population control campaign with paramount leader Mao Zedong's blessing.This campaign encouraged families to have no more than two children, but it was unevenly enforced.Strictly enforced fertility limitation began in 1978, when government officials set a population target of no more than 1.2 billion people by the year 2000, and decided that a nationwide one-child policy was the only way to avoid exceeding this target (Liu Zheng 1981;Peng Xizhe 1991).Despite widespread rural resistance that led to a de facto two-child policy in the countryside (Greenhalgh 1994a), China had close to its target population in 2000, when a nationwide census counted a population of 1.27 billion (Chu 2001).In 1970, when population control policies began, China's total fertility rate was six births per woman; in 1980, two years after the start of the one-child policy, China's total fertility rate was down to two births per woman (Coale and Chen 1987;Whyte and Gu 1987:473).Farmers had higher fertility than urban residents even before the one-child policy, and two-child families are the norm in rural areas, where farmers' overwhelming desire for sons who can serve as labor resources and old-age insurance has made the one-child policy difficult to enforce (Greenhalgh 1990(Greenhalgh , 1994a;;Greenhalgh et al. 1994;White 1987White , 2000)).In urban areas, however, the vast majority of women who married after 1978 have only one child.Compliance with the policy has remained high in cities like Dalian even during the 1990s, when the costs of violating the policy were reduced by rising incomes and the decline of the state sector and its surveillance and enforcement mechanisms. Much of the literature on China's one-child policy has emphasized that compulsory fertility limitation harms women.American opponents of China's one-child policy have focused on abuses associated with the policy, such as cadres killing babies or physically forcing women to undergo sterilizations or abortions (Aird 1990;Mosher 1993).
What the sources say
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Paid work enabled women to provide their own parents with financial support in old age and, thus, prove that daughters could be as filial as sons.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > THE LEGACY OF LOW-FERTILITY MOTHERS
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Yet the single shift of housework that a housewife did to take care of numerous children in the 1950s and 1960s seems at least as exhausting and time consuming as the combined first and second shifts of an employed mother who only had to take care of one child in the 1980s and 1990s.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > THE LEGACY OF LOW-FERTILITY MOTHERS
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Despite widespread rural resistance that led to a de facto two-child policy in the countryside (Greenhalgh 1994a), China had close to its target population in 2000, when a nationwide census counted a population of 1.27 billion (Chu 2001).”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > THE ONE-CHILD POLICY The primary aim of China's one-child policy is not to empower women but, rather, to promote modernization by reducing the number of people who must compete for resources, both in the family and the nation.While the goal of emancipating women from the burdens of high fertility was prominent in campaigns to promote the use of contraceptive technology during the 1950s and 1960s, government propaganda promoting the one-child policy that began in 1979 tended to mention women's empowerment only as an auxiliary benefit of the policy (White 1994).Contraceptive technology has enjoyed official approval in the People's Republic of China since 1954, although it did not become widely available until 1962.Family planning was voluntary until 1970, when Premier Zhou Enlai initiated a population control campaign with paramount leader Mao Zedong's blessing.This campaign encouraged families to have no more than two children, but it was unevenly enforced.Strictly enforced fertility limitation began in 1978, when government officials set a population target of no more than 1.2 billion people by the year 2000, and decided that a nationwide one-child policy was the only way to avoid exceeding this target (Liu Zheng 1981;Peng Xizhe 1991).Despite widespread rural resistance that led to a de facto two-child policy in the countryside (Greenhalgh 1994a), China had close to its target population in 2000, when a nationwide census counted a population of 1.27 billion (Chu 2001).In 1970, when population control policies began, China's total fertility rate was six births per woman; in 1980, two years after the start of the one-child policy, China's total fertility rate was down to two births per woman (Coale and Chen 1987;Whyte and Gu 1987:473).Farmers had higher fertility than urban residents even before the one-child policy, and two-child families are the norm in rural areas, where farmers' overwhelming desire for sons who can serve as labor resources and old-age insurance has made the one-child policy difficult to enforce (Greenhalgh 1990(Greenhalgh , 1994a;;Greenhalgh et al. 1994;White 1987White , 2000)).In urban areas, however, the vast majority of women who married after 1978 have only one child.Compliance with the policy has remained high in cities like Dalian even during the 1990s, when the costs of violating the policy were reduced by rising incomes and the decline of the state sector and its surveillance and enforcement mechanisms. Much of the literature on China's one-child policy has emphasized that compulsory fertility limitation harms women.American opponents of China's one-child policy have focused on abuses associated with the policy, such as cadres killing babies or physically forcing women to undergo sterilizations or abortions (Aird 1990;Mosher 1993).
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Greenhalgh 1994a
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Chu 2001
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Strictly enforced fertility limitation began in 1978, when government officials set a population target of no more than 1.2 billion people by the year 2000, and decided that a nationwide one-child policy was the only way to avoid exceeding this target (Liu Zheng 1981;Peng Xizhe 1991).”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > THE ONE-CHILD POLICY The primary aim of China's one-child policy is not to empower women but, rather, to promote modernization by reducing the number of people who must compete for resources, both in the family and the nation.While the goal of emancipating women from the burdens of high fertility was prominent in campaigns to promote the use of contraceptive technology during the 1950s and 1960s, government propaganda promoting the one-child policy that began in 1979 tended to mention women's empowerment only as an auxiliary benefit of the policy (White 1994).Contraceptive technology has enjoyed official approval in the People's Republic of China since 1954, although it did not become widely available until 1962.Family planning was voluntary until 1970, when Premier Zhou Enlai initiated a population control campaign with paramount leader Mao Zedong's blessing.This campaign encouraged families to have no more than two children, but it was unevenly enforced.Strictly enforced fertility limitation began in 1978, when government officials set a population target of no more than 1.2 billion people by the year 2000, and decided that a nationwide one-child policy was the only way to avoid exceeding this target (Liu Zheng 1981;Peng Xizhe 1991).Despite widespread rural resistance that led to a de facto two-child policy in the countryside (Greenhalgh 1994a), China had close to its target population in 2000, when a nationwide census counted a population of 1.27 billion (Chu 2001).In 1970, when population control policies began, China's total fertility rate was six births per woman; in 1980, two years after the start of the one-child policy, China's total fertility rate was down to two births per woman (Coale and Chen 1987;Whyte and Gu 1987:473).Farmers had higher fertility than urban residents even before the one-child policy, and two-child families are the norm in rural areas, where farmers' overwhelming desire for sons who can serve as labor resources and old-age insurance has made the one-child policy difficult to enforce (Greenhalgh 1990(Greenhalgh , 1994a;;Greenhalgh et al. 1994;White 1987White , 2000)).In urban areas, however, the vast majority of women who married after 1978 have only one child.Compliance with the policy has remained high in cities like Dalian even during the 1990s, when the costs of violating the policy were reduced by rising incomes and the decline of the state sector and its surveillance and enforcement mechanisms. Much of the literature on China's one-child policy has emphasized that compulsory fertility limitation harms women.American opponents of China's one-child policy have focused on abuses associated with the policy, such as cadres killing babies or physically forcing women to undergo sterilizations or abortions (Aird 1990;Mosher 1993).
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Liu Zheng 1981
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Peng Xizhe 1991
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Still, I cannot claim to have known families from all areas of China's socioeconomic pyramid.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > METHODS AND REPRESENTATIONS
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“As early as the 1920s, leading Chinese feminists of both genders have advocated paid work as a key to women's emancipation (Lan and Fong 1999).”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > THE LEGACY OF LOW-FERTILITY MOTHERS
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Lan and Fong 1999
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Because most of my students' grandmothers lacked the financial resources to support their own parents, they could not contest the cultural expectation that daughters would be less filial than sons.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > THE LEGACY OF LOW-FERTILITY MOTHERS
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“As scholars working in other Chinese cities have pointed out (Gates 1993;Milwertz 1997), the one-child policy seldom results in extreme acts of enforcement or resistance in urban areas, in which desire for high fertility is far less intense than in rural areas.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > THE ONE-CHILD POLICY The primary aim of China's one-child policy is not to empower women but, rather, to promote modernization by reducing the number of people who must compete for resources, both in the family and the nation.While the goal of emancipating women from the burdens of high fertility was prominent in campaigns to promote the use of contraceptive technology during the 1950s and 1960s, government propaganda promoting the one-child policy that began in 1979 tended to mention women's empowerment only as an auxiliary benefit of the policy (White 1994).Contraceptive technology has enjoyed official approval in the People's Republic of China since 1954, although it did not become widely available until 1962.Family planning was voluntary until 1970, when Premier Zhou Enlai initiated a population control campaign with paramount leader Mao Zedong's blessing.This campaign encouraged families to have no more than two children, but it was unevenly enforced.Strictly enforced fertility limitation began in 1978, when government officials set a population target of no more than 1.2 billion people by the year 2000, and decided that a nationwide one-child policy was the only way to avoid exceeding this target (Liu Zheng 1981;Peng Xizhe 1991).Despite widespread rural resistance that led to a de facto two-child policy in the countryside (Greenhalgh 1994a), China had close to its target population in 2000, when a nationwide census counted a population of 1.27 billion (Chu 2001).In 1970, when population control policies began, China's total fertility rate was six births per woman; in 1980, two years after the start of the one-child policy, China's total fertility rate was down to two births per woman (Coale and Chen 1987;Whyte and Gu 1987:473).Farmers had higher fertility than urban residents even before the one-child policy, and two-child families are the norm in rural areas, where farmers' overwhelming desire for sons who can serve as labor resources and old-age insurance has made the one-child policy difficult to enforce (Greenhalgh 1990(Greenhalgh , 1994a;;Greenhalgh et al. 1994;White 1987White , 2000)).In urban areas, however, the vast majority of women who married after 1978 have only one child.Compliance with the policy has remained high in cities like Dalian even during the 1990s, when the costs of violating the policy were reduced by rising incomes and the decline of the state sector and its surveillance and enforcement mechanisms. Much of the literature on China's one-child policy has emphasized that compulsory fertility limitation harms women.American opponents of China's one-child policy have focused on abuses associated with the policy, such as cadres killing babies or physically forcing women to undergo sterilizations or abortions (Aird 1990;Mosher 1993).
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Gates 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Milwertz 1997
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“American opponents of China's one-child policy have focused on abuses associated with the policy, such as cadres killing babies or physically forcing women to undergo sterilizations or abortions (Aird 1990;Mosher 1993).”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > THE ONE-CHILD POLICY The primary aim of China's one-child policy is not to empower women but, rather, to promote modernization by reducing the number of people who must compete for resources, both in the family and the nation.While the goal of emancipating women from the burdens of high fertility was prominent in campaigns to promote the use of contraceptive technology during the 1950s and 1960s, government propaganda promoting the one-child policy that began in 1979 tended to mention women's empowerment only as an auxiliary benefit of the policy (White 1994).Contraceptive technology has enjoyed official approval in the People's Republic of China since 1954, although it did not become widely available until 1962.Family planning was voluntary until 1970, when Premier Zhou Enlai initiated a population control campaign with paramount leader Mao Zedong's blessing.This campaign encouraged families to have no more than two children, but it was unevenly enforced.Strictly enforced fertility limitation began in 1978, when government officials set a population target of no more than 1.2 billion people by the year 2000, and decided that a nationwide one-child policy was the only way to avoid exceeding this target (Liu Zheng 1981;Peng Xizhe 1991).Despite widespread rural resistance that led to a de facto two-child policy in the countryside (Greenhalgh 1994a), China had close to its target population in 2000, when a nationwide census counted a population of 1.27 billion (Chu 2001).In 1970, when population control policies began, China's total fertility rate was six births per woman; in 1980, two years after the start of the one-child policy, China's total fertility rate was down to two births per woman (Coale and Chen 1987;Whyte and Gu 1987:473).Farmers had higher fertility than urban residents even before the one-child policy, and two-child families are the norm in rural areas, where farmers' overwhelming desire for sons who can serve as labor resources and old-age insurance has made the one-child policy difficult to enforce (Greenhalgh 1990(Greenhalgh , 1994a;;Greenhalgh et al. 1994;White 1987White , 2000)).In urban areas, however, the vast majority of women who married after 1978 have only one child.Compliance with the policy has remained high in cities like Dalian even during the 1990s, when the costs of violating the policy were reduced by rising incomes and the decline of the state sector and its surveillance and enforcement mechanisms. Much of the literature on China's one-child policy has emphasized that compulsory fertility limitation harms women.American opponents of China's one-child policy have focused on abuses associated with the policy, such as cadres killing babies or physically forcing women to undergo sterilizations or abortions (Aird 1990;Mosher 1993).
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Aird 1990 source
- Not matchedcites Mosher 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Scholarly studies of the one-child policy have focused on the suffering of women who long for additional children; are blamed by husbands and parents-in-law for giving birth to singleton daughters instead of sons; and face surveillance, gynecological exams, mandatory contraception, fines, and the loss of benefits or jobs (Anagnost 1988(Anagnost , 1995;;Greenhalgh and Li 1995;Kaufman 1993;Wolf 1985”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > THE ONE-CHILD POLICY The primary aim of China's one-child policy is not to empower women but, rather, to promote modernization by reducing the number of people who must compete for resources, both in the family and the nation.While the goal of emancipating women from the burdens of high fertility was prominent in campaigns to promote the use of contraceptive technology during the 1950s and 1960s, government propaganda promoting the one-child policy that began in 1979 tended to mention women's empowerment only as an auxiliary benefit of the policy (White 1994).Contraceptive technology has enjoyed official approval in the People's Republic of China since 1954, although it did not become widely available until 1962.Family planning was voluntary until 1970, when Premier Zhou Enlai initiated a population control campaign with paramount leader Mao Zedong's blessing.This campaign encouraged families to have no more than two children, but it was unevenly enforced.Strictly enforced fertility limitation began in 1978, when government officials set a population target of no more than 1.2 billion people by the year 2000, and decided that a nationwide one-child policy was the only way to avoid exceeding this target (Liu Zheng 1981;Peng Xizhe 1991).Despite widespread rural resistance that led to a de facto two-child policy in the countryside (Greenhalgh 1994a), China had close to its target population in 2000, when a nationwide census counted a population of 1.27 billion (Chu 2001).In 1970, when population control policies began, China's total fertility rate was six births per woman; in 1980, two years after the start of the one-child policy, China's total fertility rate was down to two births per woman (Coale and Chen 1987;Whyte and Gu 1987:473).Farmers had higher fertility than urban residents even before the one-child policy, and two-child families are the norm in rural areas, where farmers' overwhelming desire for sons who can serve as labor resources and old-age insurance has made the one-child policy difficult to enforce (Greenhalgh 1990(Greenhalgh , 1994a;;Greenhalgh et al. 1994;White 1987White , 2000)).In urban areas, however, the vast majority of women who married after 1978 have only one child.Compliance with the policy has remained high in cities like Dalian even during the 1990s, when the costs of violating the policy were reduced by rising incomes and the decline of the state sector and its surveillance and enforcement mechanisms. Much of the literature on China's one-child policy has emphasized that compulsory fertility limitation harms women.American opponents of China's one-child policy have focused on abuses associated with the policy, such as cadres killing babies or physically forcing women to undergo sterilizations or abortions (Aird 1990;Mosher 1993).
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Anagnost 1988
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Anagnost 1995
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Greenhalgh and Li 1995 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Because of this assumption, parents avoided investing family resources in daughters.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > THE LEGACY OF LOW-FERTILITY MOTHERS
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Earlier studies attribute much of the male dominance in Chinese societies to parents' preferential treatment of sons over daughters (Greenhalgh 1985a(Greenhalgh , 1994b;;Salaff 1995;Wolf 1968Wolf , 1972)).”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > THE LEGACY OF LOW-FERTILITY MOTHERS
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Greenhalgh 1985a
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Greenhalgh 1994b
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Salaff 1995
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Schooling is also likely to cause women to learn childrearing practices that reduce infant mortality and, thus, reduce the need to have large numbers of children, as Robert A. Levine and his coauthors found in a 1983 study of Mexican mothers' education and childcare practices (LeVine et al. 1991).”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites LeVine et al. 1991 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The schools where I conducted my survey enrolled students from a wide variety of socioeconomic backgrounds, although the most disadvantaged teenagers (such as those who were disabled or lacked urban citizenship) and the most elite teenagers (who were more likely to attend private schools, keypoint high schools, or study abroad programs) were underrepresented.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > METHODS AND REPRESENTATIONS
plainn = 2,167- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Both generations of women worked all day, every day.The main difference is that employed mothers had part of their work valorized with monthly wages, which constantly reminded them as well as their husbands, parents, and parents-in-law of their power and indispensability.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > THE LEGACY OF LOW-FERTILITY MOTHERS
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This is not always beneficial to the first generation of women to experience the fertility transition, since they tend to have been socialized to desire large numbers of children and may suffer when they cannot realize this desire.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Stereotypically masculine traits are seen as ideal for most jobs in the rapidly shrinking heavy-industry sector and in highstatus professions open only to a tiny elite.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > EDUCATION AND WORK
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, women can gain upward mobility through hypergamous marriage, while men are often forced to choose between permanent bachelorhood and marriage to someone of lower status.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > MARRIAGE
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This means that elite women are less likely to get elite work than their male counterparts, but also that nonelite women are more likely to avoid unemployment than their male counterparts.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > EDUCATION AND WORK
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Brotherless daughters, however, are encouraged to make full use of their academic talents because they are their parents' only objects of investment, and only hope for old-age support.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > EDUCATION AND WORK
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Men have neither the obstacle of the glass ceiling nor the protection of the glass floor.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > DEALING STRATEGICALLY WITH GENDER NORMS
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This advantage, however, was balanced out by elite schools' emphasis on math and science (which boys favored) over the social sciences and humanities (which girls favored).”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > EDUCATION AND WORK
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“They meet this challenge with a strategic combination of conformity and resistance.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > DEALING STRATEGICALLY WITH GENDER NORMS
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Parents whose love, hope, and need for old-age support are all pinned on just one child tend to do whatever is necessary to make that child happy and successful, regardless of the child's gender.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > DEALING STRATEGICALLY WITH GENDER NORMS
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The removal of this disadvantage has enabled singleton daughters to make the best use of their glass floor, and in some cases push the limits of their glass ceiling.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > EDUCATION AND WORK
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Still, my students' mothers had at least proven daughters were capable of providing financial support for their parents.This reassured my students' parents that their daughters could have the same capability, especially if they were given the resources to take full advantage of socioeconomic opportunities.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > THE LEGACY OF LOW-FERTILITY MOTHERS
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Women face a glass ceiling produced by their extra burden of domestic responsibility, by gender norms that favor men in elite professions, and by inequalities between elite husbands and their less elite, hypergamous wives.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > DEALING STRATEGICALLY WITH GENDER NORMS
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While a woman has the option of relying on her husband's income, it is not as desirable as having an income of her own.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > EDUCATION AND WORK
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“High school entrance exams tested students on more science and math subjects than humanities and social science subjects, and four-year colleges accepted more science and math majors than humanities and social science majors.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > EDUCATION AND WORK
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although they were not ethnic minorities, economically disadvantaged teenagers in Dalian experienced a similar phenomenon.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > EDUCATION AND WORK
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Rather, they work in favor of younger women and academically unsuccessful women from lower-class families even as they work against older women, elite women, and poor, academically unsuccessful men.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > EDUCATION AND WORK
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Focusing on biases against older women and elite women, recent studies have argued that post-Mao economic reforms have intensified discrimination against women (Croll 1995;Honig and Hershatter 1988;Hooper 1998;Kerr et al. 1996;Summerfield 1994).”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > EDUCATION AND WORK
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Croll 1995
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Honig and Hershatter 1988 source
- Not matchedcites Hooper 1998
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Singletons of either gender face no competition for parental investment or inheritance.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > MARRIAGE
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Daughters are therefore counseled both to conform to gender norms that can give them an advantage in the general job market and to disregard those that might exclude them from elite professional work.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > EDUCATION AND WORK
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In the educational systems of Britain, Canada, the United States, Belgium, Morocco, and Algeria, girls from stigmatized minority backgrounds have tended to outperform their male counterparts, who are more likely to rebel against school discipline (which is identified with their ethnic oppressors) (Gibson 1997).”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > EDUCATION AND WORK
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Gibson 1997 source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“The greater studiousness of girls was of limited use in previous generations because parents were reluctant to spend money on daughters' education and sometimes even made daughters drop out of school to do work that would fund their brothers' education (Greenhalgh 1985b(Greenhalgh , 1994b;;Lan and Fong 1999;Wolf 1968Wolf , 1972)).”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > EDUCATION AND WORK
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Greenhalgh 1985b
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Greenhalgh 1994b
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Lan and Fong 1999
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although powerful, these norms are recognized, talked about, and open to challenge.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > DEALING STRATEGICALLY WITH GENDER NORMS
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Because they have the full support of their parents, singleton daughters have unprecedented freedom to engage in this kind of play.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > DEALING STRATEGICALLY WITH GENDER NORMS
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Therefore, they do not try to eradicate all gender norms.Rather, they only try to do away with ones most likely to hurt their own interests, such as those that portray daughters as less filial and less worthy of parental investment than sons.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > DEALING STRATEGICALLY WITH GENDER NORMS
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Women also enjoy the protection of a glass floor created by the hypergamous marriage system, by gender norms that favor nonelite women in the educational system, and by the rapidly expanding market for feminine jobs in the service and light industry sectors.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > DEALING STRATEGICALLY WITH GENDER NORMS
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While elite men are more likely than their female counterparts to rise to the top of their society, nonelite men are also more likely than their female counterparts to fall to the bottom.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > DEALING STRATEGICALLY WITH GENDER NORMS
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Daughters and their parents face the extra challenge of winning happiness and success in a society structured by gender norms that have long disadvantaged women.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > DEALING STRATEGICALLY WITH GENDER NORMS
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While more elite women might have the wherewithal to seek the total liberation that Butler proposed, my mostly nonelite students and their parents find that they must choose their battles.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > DEALING STRATEGICALLY WITH GENDER NORMS
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Girls who conform to gender norms are more studious and obedient than their male counterparts and, thus, more successful in the educational system at all levels besides the very highest.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > EDUCATION AND WORK
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These factors constituted a significant bias against girls at the highest levels of academic achievement, but not at the middle and lower levels where the majority of students found themselves.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > EDUCATION AND WORK
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Such a transition would have occurred more slowly, and produced fewer brotherless daughters, than the transition mandated by the one-child policy.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > CONCLUSION
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Daughters empowered by the support of parents with no sons to favor are able to defy detrimental norms while strategically using ones that give them advantages in the educational system and the job and marriage markets.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > CONCLUSION
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, urban singleton daughters enjoy unprecedented support for their effort to challenge norms that work against them while utilizing those that work in their favor.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > CONCLUSION
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The benefits enjoyed by singleton daughters result from the demographic pattern produced by China's one-child policy, and not necessarily from the compulsory nature of that policy.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > CONCLUSION
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Global processes of industrialization, modernization, and urbanization have led to low fertility in all developed countries and many developing countries worldwide.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These processes would probably have caused a fertility transition in cities like Dalian even without a onechild policy.”
§ China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters > CONCLUSION
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Global processes of industrialization, modernization, and urbanization have led to low fertility in all developed countries and many developing countries worldwide.
The paper relies on this without support.
The experiences of the families in Dalian are sufficiently representative of urban Chinese families for the paper's conclusions about urban daughters.
“In cities like Dalian, however, it is dear that daughters would have been less able to take advantage of available opportunities if they had to compete with brothers for family resources, and if their mothers had not demonstrated that women can support their parents in old age.”
“My findings are not representative of the experiences of the highest-ranked university graduates who dominate intellectual discourse, or of the rural citizens who constituted 64 percent (China Population Information and Research Center 2001) of the Chinese population in 2000.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Parents' statements about not using sex-selective abortion or other abuses are truthful enough to support the claim that such abuses did not occur in Dalian.
“While medical techniques for detecting the sex of fetuses have been available (although illegal) in Dalian since the 1980s, the mothers of boys I tutored denied ever having used abortion to avoid having daughters and maintained that only farmers would do this.”
“While 1 heard rumors about farmers committing infanticide, physically forcing women to undergo sterilizations or abortions, or abandoning or lethally neglecting daughters, I never heard of such abuses occurring in Dalian.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Survey respondents' self-reports about siblings, parental employment, living arrangements, and other family characteristics are accurate enough to support the paper's findings.
“According to survey respondents, 25 percent of their mothers (N = 2,190) and 12 percent of their fathers (N = 2,190) have been laid off or given early retirement.”
“Only six percent of my survey respondents (N = 2,167) had siblings.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The housing reforms of 1997 allowed work units to sell apartments on the private market instead of assigning them to workers in exchange for low, subsidized rents.
“This disadvantage became particularly onerous after the housing reforms of 1997, which allowed work units to sell apartments on the private market instead of assigning them to workers in exchange for low, subsidized rents.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Global processes of industrialization, modernization, and urbanization have led to low fertility in all developed countries and many developing countries worldwide.
“Global processes of industrialization, modernization, and urbanization have led to low fertility in all developed countries and many developing countries worldwide.”
The paper relies on this without support.
People of every generation have tried to use gender norms to attain their own desires.
“People of every generation have tried to use gender norms to attain their own desires (whether they involved socioeconomic success or the maintenance of strong ties to one's parents)”
The paper relies on this without support.
The efforts of Chinese daughters born prior to the one-child policy were severely hindered by a patrilineal system that overwhelmingly favored sons at the expense of their sisters.
“but the efforts of Chinese daughters born prior to the onechild policy were severely hindered by a patrilineal system that overwhelmingly favored sons at the expense of their sisters.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The midlevel job market has greater demand for female workers.
“Recognizing the midlevel job market's greater demand for female workers”
The paper relies on this without support.
Family background, career success, and educational attainment are important spouse selection criteria for men and women alike.
“Family background, career success, and educational attainment are important spouse selection criteria for men and women alike, 9”
The paper relies on this without support.
As in the past, grooms are expected to provide marital housing.
“As in the past, grooms are expected to provide marital housing.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The ability to live up to the expectation of providing marital housing remains an important determinant of whether a man can win a bride.
“The ability to live up to this expectation remains an important determinant of whether a man can win a bride.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Fong's (2002) pioneering work on one-child families found that urban parents mobilised all their resources to invest in education for their only children regardless of gender.”
From Virtues or Talent among Brotherless Daughters: A Study of How Patriarchal Gender Ideals Affect Gender Role Attitudes among Women from the One-Child Generation in China (2024) · cites this paper as Fong, 2002
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Citations
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“DEALING STRATEGICALLY WITH GENDER NORMS The strategy of raising a brotherless daughter to fill the kinship role usually reserved for sons was occasionally practiced even in prerevolutionary China Qordan 1972: 91-92; Pasternak 1985; Rofel 1999:80-94).”
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The effects of China’s universal two-child policy
Zeng, Y., & Hesketh, T. (2016) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(16)31405-2 · Cited by 701
Chinese parents’ goals and practices in early childhood
Luo, R., Tamis‐LeMonda, C. S., & Song, L. (2013) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2013.08.001 · Cited by 360
Intergenerational Intimacy and Descending Familism in Rural North China
Yan, Y. (2016) · American Anthropologist · doi:10.1111/aman.12527 · Cited by 326
The One-Child Policy and Gender Equality in Education in China: Evidence from Household Data
Lee, M.-H. (2012) · Journal of Family and Economic Issues · doi:10.1007/s10834-011-9277-9 · Cited by 206
Division of Labor, Gender Ideology, and Marital Satisfaction in East Asia
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Filial Piety, Patrilineality, and China's One-Child Policy
Deutsch, F. M. (2006) · Journal of Family Issues · doi:10.1177/0192513x05283097 · Cited by 184
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Metadata
- Authors
- Fong, V. L.
- Affiliations
- University of Michigan (US)
- Corresponding author
- Fong, Vanessa L.
- Venue
- American Anthropologist
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2002-12
- Volume
- 104
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 1098-1109
- ISSN
- 0002-7294 (ISSN-L)
- 1548-1433
- OpenAlex
- W2069156143
- Semantic Scholar
- 9054b332478db9477198db4055b2176adfe961d8
- Cited by
- 424
- References
- 96
- Citations by year
- 2026: 29 · 2025: 32 · 2024: 25 · 2023: 16 · 2022: 20 · 2021: 53 · 2020: 79 · 2019: 18 · 2018: 22 · 2017: 14 · 2016: 17 · 2015: 13 · 2014: 12 · 2013: 16 · 2012: 15
- FWCI
- 5.20
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- American Anthropologist (publishedVersion)
- Deep Blue (University of Michigan) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation
- City University of Hong Kong
- McGill University
- Society for Cultural Anthropology
- Association for Feminist Anthropology
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Demographic Trends and Gender Preferences
- Social Sciences › Demography › Family Dynamics and Relationships
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender, Labor, and Family Dynamics
- Keywords
- one-child policy, gender norms, patrilineal kinship, parental investment, filiality, fertility decline, gender inequality, family structure
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