Cannibalism in the Prehistoric American Southwest. Occurrence, Taphonomy, Explanation, and Suggestions for Standardized World Definition.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Until recently, conflict and warfare were given little attention in the study of the evolution of Southwest cultures.

“Until recently, conflict and warfare were given little attention in the study of the evolution of South westcultures (Haas, 1990;Haas and Creamer, 1993;Hurst and Turner, 1993;Mackey and Green, 1979).”

• cites Haas, 1990Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Haas and Creamer, 1993 sourceSupported
• cites Hurst and Turner, 1993Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

There is no identifiable direct connection with cannibalism in Mexico.

“There is no identifiable direct connection with cannibalism in Mexico.”

May combine two claims.

All ages and both sexes are represented.

“All ages and both sexes are represented.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

In no instances can the precise cause of death be determined.

“In no instances can the precise cause of death be determined.”

May combine two claims.

The fourth class of skeletons is very rare and has physical characteristics that differ completely from skeletons associated with natural or traumatic death.

“The fourth class of skeletons is very rare and has physical characteristics that differ completely from skeletons associated with natural or traumatic death.”

May combine two claims.

The perimortem bone breakage is intentional, usually followed by butchering as indicated by cut marks.

“The perimortem (at or around the time of death) bone breakage is intentional (Fig. 2), usually followed by butchering as indicated by cut marks in Fig. 3.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Perimortem cut marks made with stone knives or sharp stone flakes have long been informally recognized on Southwest animal bones as indications of butchering.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Polacca Wash charnel deposit is one of the largest assemblages.

“This is one of the largest assemblages.”

May combine two claims.

The basal sands beneath the bone bed at Polacca Wash show no signs of fire or previous human activity.

“The basal sands beneath the bone bed show no signs of fire or previous human activity.”

May combine two claims.

The bone breakage on the Wupatki femur is post-mortem and unrelated to the perimortem abrasions.

“Bone breakage is post-mortem and unrelated to perimortem abrasions”

May combine two claims.

When considered with the sites evidencing extensive violence, Southwest cannibalism appears to be part of a socially-pathological and chaotic development that began in the Anasazi area, possibly triggered by Mesoamerican influences such as Mexican traders.

“When considered with the sites evidenc ingextensive violence, Southwest cannibalism appears to be part of a socially -pathological and chaotic development that began in the Anasazi area, possibly triggered by Mesoamerican influences such as Mexican traders.”

May combine two claims.

Decapitation and taking of trophy heads as well as scalping were practiced as early as Basketmaker II times (200 B.C. to A.D. 400), presumably associated with conflict.

“although decapitation and taking of trophy heads as well as scalping were practiced as early as Basketmaker II times (200 B.C. to A.D. 400), presumably associated with conflict (Kidder and Gurnsey, 1919;Wilcox and Haas, 1989).”

• cites Kidder and Gurnsey, 1919Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Wilcox and Haas, 1989Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Southwest cannibalism has been hypothesized by several workers when a minimum number of certain types of human-induced bone damage occur in a skeletal series.

“Southwest cannibalism has been hypothesized by several workers when a minimum number of certain types of human-induced bone damage occur in a skeletal series (Figs.123456).”

May combine two claims.

The pochteca trader idea has been difficult to demonstrate, and until recently no pochteca burials have been convincingly identified.

“The idea has been difficult to demonstrate, and while archeologists have searched for pochteca burials, until recently none has been convincingly identified (Akins and Schelberg, 1984;Frisbie, 1978;Kelley, 1986;Nelson, 1986;Pepper, 1909;Reyman, 1978).”

• cites Akins and Schelberg, 1984Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Frisbie, 1978Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Kelley, 1986Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Shell, as with other trade items, could simply pass from community to community without necessarily requiring a long-distance carrier or trader.

“but shell, as with other trade items could simply pass from community to community without necessarily requiring a long distancecarrier or trader.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The pochteca trader idea has been a model for suggesting Mesoamerican influence on the development of Southwest culture.

“One of the most interesting models for suggesting Mesoamerican influence on the development of Southwest culture has been the pochteca trader idea, advocated by the late Charles C. Di Peso (1974).”

• cites Di Peso, 1974Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

There was Mexican influence on the cultural development in the Southwest.

“Few Southwesternists doubt that there was Mexican influence on the cultural development in the Southwest.”

• cites Cordell, 1984Not checked — no full text of the source
• cites Kelley and Kelley, 1975Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Lekson, 1986Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Cannibalism occurs in wild non-human primates and many other vertebrate species.

“recent careful research has shown without question that cannibalism occurs in wild non-human primates (Goodall, 1977; Nishida and Kankawa, 1985; Norikoshi, 1982), and many other vertebrate species (Elgar and Crespi , 1993).”

• cites Goodall, 1977 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Nishida and Kankawa, 1985Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Norikoshi, 1982 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

These characteristics are believed to have resulted from acts of cannibalism.

“These characteristics are believed to have resulted from acts of cannibalism, the subject of this paper.”

May combine two claims.

Tooth modification is a well known Mesoamerican culture element, but not a feature of prehistoric Southwest Indians.

“Tooth modification is a well known Mesoamerican culture element, but not a feature of prehistoric Southwest Indians.”

• cites Ekholm, 1942Not checked — no full text of the source
• cites Powell and Powell, 1992Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Benfer, 1968Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The term pochteca is strictly-speaking inappropriate because it refers to a specialized class within Aztec society that traded exclusively to the south of the Valley of Mexico.

“Although the term pochteca is strictly-speaking inappropriate because it refers to a specialized class within Aztec society that traded exclusively to the south of the Valley of Mexico (P. Weigand, personal communication, Oct. 29, 1993)”

• cites P. Weigand, personal communication, Oct. 29, 1993Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

These features are breakage, cutting, anvil or hammerstone abrasions, burning, missing vertebrae, and fragment polishing.

“These features are breakage, cutting, anvil or hammerstone abrasions, burning, missing vertebrae, and fragment polishing (Turner and Turner, 1992).”

• cites Turner and Turner, 1992Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The oldest known example of dental modification north of the Valley of Mexico was found in Nuevo Leon and dates to 1750 B.P.

“The oldest (1750 B.P.) known example of dental modification north of the Valley of Mexico was found in Nuevo Leon (Powell and Powell, 1992).”

• cites Powell and Powell, 1992Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Maize was introduced early in the Southwest.

“Maize was introduced early, and later there was trade in turquoise, macaws, shell, copper bells, and probably slaves, cotton cloth, and other valuables (Cordell, 1984;Harbottle and Weigand, 1992;Matson, 1991).”

• cites Cordell, 1984Not checked — no full text of the source
• cites Harbottle and Weigand, 1992 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Matson, 1991Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Turner and Morris (1970) are among the earliest published papers to illustrate cut human bone.

“Turner and Morris (1970) are among the earliest published papers to illustrate cut human bone.”

• cites Turner and Morris (1970) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

It is not possible to identify the exact morphogenetic affinity of these individuals because of their incompleteness.

“Unfortunately, it is not possible to identify the exact morphogenetic affinity of these individuals because of their incompleteness.”

May combine two claims.

Later there was trade in turquoise, macaws, shell, copper bells, and probably slaves, cotton cloth, and other valuables.

“Maize was introduced early, and later there was trade in turquoise, macaws, shell, copper bells, and probably slaves, cotton cloth, and other valuables (Cordell, 1984;Harbottle and Weigand, 1992;Matson, 1991).”

• cites Cordell, 1984Not checked — no full text of the source
• cites Harbottle and Weigand, 1992 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Matson, 1991Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

With these physical items must also have come a torrent of Mesoamerican ideas and concepts.

“With these physical items must also have come a torrent of Mesoamerican ideas and concepts.”

May combine two claims.

The two examples of Southwest tooth notching can only represent individuals who were either from Mesoamerica, or had been there during part of their lives and underwent the operation for notching.

“Southwest tooth notching can only represent individuals who were either from Mesoamerica, or had been there during part of their lives and underwent the operation for notching.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Tooth notching is absent in the U.S. culture areas adjacent to the Southwest—California, Great Basin, and Plains.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Throughout the Southwest the most common burial type was a single person interred in a flexed position with some form of grave offering.

“Throughout the Southwest the most common burial type was a single person interred in a flexed position with some form of grave offering (Stanislawski, 1963).”

• cites Stanislawski, 1963 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

There must have been prehistoric central Mexican traders, religious and military entrepreneurs, miners, pilgrims, and other sorts of explorers and adventurers in and out of the religious-military government circles who traveled and explored northward from central Mexico.

“nevertheless, there must have been prehistoric central Mexican traders, religious and military entrepreneurs, miners, pilgrims, and other sorts of explorers and adventurers in and out of the religious -military government circles who traveled and explored northward from central”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Public displays of human sacrifice and cannibalism could have enhanced the amount and regularity of tribute in the Chacoan sphere of influence.

“so what worked in the Valley of Mexico could just as well have enhanced the amount and regularity of tribute in the Chacoan sphere of influence.”

May combine two claims.

Much breakage occurs after muscle and other tissues have been removed, otherwise, the anvil or hammerstone abrasions could not occur, especially on the bones of the heavily fleshed upper arms and legs, and of the back.

“Much breakage occurs after muscle and other tissues have been removed, otherwise, the anvil or hammerstone abrasions shown in Fig. 4 could not occur, especially on the bones of the heavily fleshed upper arms and legs, and of the back.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted).

Part of the explanation for Anasazi cannibalism is tied to whatever explanation is finally worked out for the development of the Chaco Great House, road, and outlier sociopolitical system.

“The relatively large number of Southwest sites evidencing probable cannibalism, and the concentration of these sites in and relatively near Chaco Great Houses and outliers, leads to the hypothesis that part of the explanation for Anasazi cannibalism is tied to whatever explanation is finally worked out for the development of the Chaco Great House, road, and outlier sociopolitical system.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

The minimal six taphonomic features used to identify Southwest cannibalism herein are as definitive as circumstantial evidence can ever be.

“In conclusion, we believe that the minimal six taphonomic features used to identify Southwest cannibalism herein are as definitive as circumstantial evidence can ever be.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The Aztec and earlier Toltec use of ritual human sacrifice and cannibalism for social control, as well as for religious and ideological functions, could have worked just as well for the same duel purposes in the Anasazi area as they did in Mesoamerica.

“The Aztec and earlier Toltec use of ritual human sacrifice and cannibalism for social control, as well as for religious and ideological functions, could have worked just as well for the same duel purposes in the Anasazi area as they did in Mesoamerica.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

There are other qualities associated with the cannibal signature, especially good preservation, but the key six must be present before cannibalism can even be suggested.

“We emphasize that there are other qualities associated with the cannibal signature, especially good preservation, but the key six must be present before cannibalism can even be suggested.”

May combine two claims.

The region of the northern frontier of Mesoamerica where dental modification was practiced appears to be west Mexico, where prehistoric human sacrifice, cannibalism, and dental modification have been identified.

“For the moment, that would appear to be in west Mexico where prehistoric human sacrifice, cannibalism, and dental modification have been identified (Pickering and Foster, 1994).”

• cites Pickering and Foster, 1994Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The adult male buried at the Grand Canal Hohokam site, Phoenix, central Arizona, originated in Mexico, where tooth modification was practiced.

“suggesting this man originated in Mexico where tooth modification was practiced”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Dental modification is not a characteristic of prehistoric Southwest Indians.