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Cited by 234Attention Deficit Hyperactivity DisorderDevelopmental and Educational NeuropsychologyAutism Spectrum Disorder Research

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 69 of the 69 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

Etiologic classification of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.

Millichap, J. Gordon·2008·PEDIATRICS
DOI 10.1542/peds.2007-1332
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Abstract

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder is a neurobiological syndrome with an estimated prevalence among children and adolescents of 5%. It is a highly heritable disorder, but acquired factors in etiology are sometimes uncovered that may be amenable to preventive measures or specific therapy. Early reports have described symptoms similar to attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder that followed brain trauma or viral encephalitis, and recent MRI studies have demonstrated brain volumetric changes that may be involved in the pathophysiology of the syndrome. The American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic Statistical Manual, introduced in 1968, emphasizes symptomatic criteria in diagnosis. Here, an overview of environmental factors in the etiology of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder is presented to encourage more emphasis and research on organic causal factors, preventive intervention, and specific therapies. An organic theory and the genetic and biochemical basis of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder are briefly reviewed, and an etiologic classification is suggested. Environmental factors are prenatal, perinatal, and postnatal in origin. Pregnancy- and birth-related risk factors include maternal smoking and alcohol ingestion, prematurity, hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy, and thyroid deficiency. Childhood illnesses associated with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder include virus infections, meningitis, encephalitis, head injury, epilepsy, toxins, and drugs. More controversial factors discussed are diet-related sensitivities and iron deficiency. Early prenatal recognition, prevention, and treatment of environmental etiologies of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder may reduce physician reliance on symptomatic modification with medication, a frequent reason for parental concern.

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Research works printed but not linked: 4

  1. Hohman LB. Post-encephalitic behavior disorders in children. Bull Johns Hopkins Hosp. 1922;380:372–375
  2. Millichap JG. Febrile Convulsions. New York, NY: Macmillan; 1968:32
  3. Nass R. Etiologies of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: facts and myths. Int Pediatr. 1995;10(3):236–241
  4. Millichap JG. Diets and alternative controversial therapies. In: Attention Deficit Hyperactivity and Learning Disorders. Chicago, IL: PNB Publishers; 1998:201–226

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Metadata

Authors
Millichap, J. G.
Affiliations
Northwestern University (US)
Corresponding author
Millichap, J. Gordon
ORCID
Millichap, J. Gordon
Venue
PEDIATRICS
Publisher
American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP)
Published
2008-02-01
Volume
121
Issue
2
Pages
e358-e365
ISSN
  • 0031-4005 (ISSN-L)
  • 1098-4275
DOI
10.1542/peds.2007-1332
OpenAlex
W2104674093
Cited by
234
References
69
Citations by year
2026: 4 · 2025: 8 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 8 · 2022: 11 · 2021: 14 · 2020: 15 · 2019: 7 · 2018: 6 · 2017: 14 · 2016: 18 · 2015: 15 · 2014: 21 · 2013: 16 · 2012: 22
FWCI
2.01
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
closed
Locations
  • PEDIATRICS (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Autism Spectrum Disorder Research
Keywords
attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, etiology, etiologic classification, environmental risk factors, prenatal risk factors, perinatal risk factors, maternal smoking, maternal alcohol exposure, preterm birth, hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy, thyroid hormone deficiency, viral encephalitis, meningitis, traumatic brain injury, epilepsy, iron deficiency, brain volumetric changes, heritability, genetic basis, biochemical basis, prevention
MeSH terms
Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity, Diet, Environment, Female, Humans, Pregnancy, Prenatal Exposure Delayed Effects, Risk Factors, Thyroid Hormone Resistance Syndrome

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