The DOI matches its Crossref record; 69 of the 69 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Etiologic classification of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.
Abstract
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder is a neurobiological syndrome with an estimated prevalence among children and adolescents of 5%. It is a highly heritable disorder, but acquired factors in etiology are sometimes uncovered that may be amenable to preventive measures or specific therapy. Early reports have described symptoms similar to attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder that followed brain trauma or viral encephalitis, and recent MRI studies have demonstrated brain volumetric changes that may be involved in the pathophysiology of the syndrome. The American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic Statistical Manual, introduced in 1968, emphasizes symptomatic criteria in diagnosis. Here, an overview of environmental factors in the etiology of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder is presented to encourage more emphasis and research on organic causal factors, preventive intervention, and specific therapies. An organic theory and the genetic and biochemical basis of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder are briefly reviewed, and an etiologic classification is suggested. Environmental factors are prenatal, perinatal, and postnatal in origin. Pregnancy- and birth-related risk factors include maternal smoking and alcohol ingestion, prematurity, hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy, and thyroid deficiency. Childhood illnesses associated with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder include virus infections, meningitis, encephalitis, head injury, epilepsy, toxins, and drugs. More controversial factors discussed are diet-related sensitivities and iron deficiency. Early prenatal recognition, prevention, and treatment of environmental etiologies of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder may reduce physician reliance on symptomatic modification with medication, a frequent reason for parental concern.
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“because there is a large variety of causes for the cognitive and behavioral symptoms, such as genetics, anxiety, life stress, exposure to environmental toxins, etc. (Millichap, 2008; Shah et al., 2012).”
From Executive control training from middle childhood to adolescence (2014) · cites this paper as Millichap, 2008
Citations
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Acetaminophen Use During Pregnancy, Behavioral Problems, and Hyperkinetic Disorders
Liew, Z., Ritz, B. R., Rebordosa, C., Lee, P., & Olsen, J. (2014) · Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine · doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2013.4914 · Cited by 407
Preterm birth and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in schoolchildren
Lindström, K., Lindblad, F., & Hjern, A. (2011) · Pediatrics · doi:10.1542/peds.2010-1279 · Cited by 334
Executive control training from middle childhood to adolescence
Karbach, J., & Unger, K. (2014) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00390 · Cited by 269
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Galéra, C. (2011) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.138 · Cited by 282
Metadata
- Authors
- Millichap, J. G.
- Affiliations
- Northwestern University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Millichap, J. Gordon
- ORCID
- Millichap, J. Gordon
- Venue
- PEDIATRICS
- Publisher
- American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP)
- Published
- 2008-02-01
- Volume
- 121
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- e358-e365
- ISSN
- 0031-4005 (ISSN-L)
- 1098-4275
- OpenAlex
- W2104674093
- Cited by
- 234
- References
- 69
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 8 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 8 · 2022: 11 · 2021: 14 · 2020: 15 · 2019: 7 · 2018: 6 · 2017: 14 · 2016: 18 · 2015: 15 · 2014: 21 · 2013: 16 · 2012: 22
- FWCI
- 2.01
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- PEDIATRICS (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Autism Spectrum Disorder Research
- Keywords
- attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, etiology, etiologic classification, environmental risk factors, prenatal risk factors, perinatal risk factors, maternal smoking, maternal alcohol exposure, preterm birth, hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy, thyroid hormone deficiency, viral encephalitis, meningitis, traumatic brain injury, epilepsy, iron deficiency, brain volumetric changes, heritability, genetic basis, biochemical basis, prevention
- MeSH terms
- Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity, Diet, Environment, Female, Humans, Pregnancy, Prenatal Exposure Delayed Effects, Risk Factors, Thyroid Hormone Resistance Syndrome
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