Quantitative brain magnetic resonance imaging in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder

Castellanos, F. Xavier

doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1996.01830070053009

Cited by 1,183Attention Deficit Hyperactivity DisorderNeural and Behavioral Psychology StudiesAutism Spectrum Disorder Research

Quantitative brain magnetic resonance imaging in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder

Castellanos, F. Xavier·1996·Archives of General Psychiatry

DOI 10.1001/archpsyc.1996.01830070053009

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Abstract

BACKGROUND: Anatomic magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) studies of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) have been limited by small samples or measurement of single brain regions. Since the neuropsychological deficits in ADHD implicate a network linking basal ganglia and frontal regions, 12 subcortical and cortical regions and their symmetries were measured to determine if these structures best distinguished ADHD. METHODS: Anatomic brain MRIs for 57 boys with ADHD and 55 healthy matched controls, aged 5 to 18 years, were obtained using a 1.5-T scanner with contiguous 2-mm sections. Volumetric measures of the cerebrum, caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus, amygdala, hippocampus, temporal lobe, cerebellum; a measure of prefrontal cortex; and related right-left asymmetries were examined along with midsagittal area measures of the cerebellum and corpus callosum. Interrater reliabilities were .82 or greater for all MRI measures. RESULTS: Subjects with ADHD had a 4.7% smaller total cerebral volume (P = .02). Analysis of covariance for total cerebral volume demonstrated a significant loss of normal right > left asymmetry in the caudate (P = .006), smaller right globus pallidus (P = .005), smaller right anterior frontal region (P = .02), smaller cerebellum (P = .05), and reversal of normal lateral ventricular asymmetry (P = .03) in the ADHD group. The normal age-related decrease in caudate volume was not seen, and increases in lateral ventricular volumes were significantly diminished in ADHD. CONCLUSION: This first comprehensive morphometric analysis is consistent with hypothesized dysfunction of right-sided prefrontal-striatal systems in ADHD.

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Several but not all studies report reduced whole brain size in children with ADHD.
“several (Berquin et al., 1998; Castellanos et al., 1996; Castellanos, 2001; Castellanos et al., 2002a; Hill et al., 2003), but not all (Durston et al., 2004; Filipek et al., 1997; Hynd et al., 1990; Mostofsky et al., 2002), studies report reduced whole brain size in children with ADHD.”
From The influences of environmental enrichment, cognitive enhancement, and physical exercise on brain development: Can we alter the developmental trajectory of ADHD? (2011) · cites this paper as Castellanos et al., 1996
Structural anomalies have been reported in the cerebellum and posterior cortex in ADHD.
“Studies have noted reduced volume in several parts of the cerebellum in ADHD (Castellanos et al., 2002a; Castellanos et al., 1996; Durston et al., 2004; Posner & Petersen, 1990) as well as posterior cortical anomalies (Durston et al., 2004; Filipek et al., 1997; Sowell et al., 2003).”
From The influences of environmental enrichment, cognitive enhancement, and physical exercise on brain development: Can we alter the developmental trajectory of ADHD? (2011) · cites this paper as Castellanos et al., 1996
Numerous structural MRI studies have reported smaller prefrontal cortex regions in youth with ADHD.
“Numerous structural MRI studies have reported smaller regions in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) of youth with ADHD (Castellanos et al., 1996; Castellanos et al., 2002a; Durston et al., 2004; Filipek et al., 1997; Hynd, Semrud-Clikeman, Lorys, Novey, & Eliopulos, 1990; Kates et al., 2002; Mostofsky, Cooper, Kates, Denckla, & Kaufmann, 2002; Sowell et al., 2003).”
From The influences of environmental enrichment, cognitive enhancement, and physical exercise on brain development: Can we alter the developmental trajectory of ADHD? (2011) · cites this paper as Castellanos et al., 1996
Earlier mental disorder onset shapes brain development and relates to self-injurious behaviors.
“Earlier mental disorder onset shapes brain development (e.g., (123)) and relates to self-injurious behaviors (1).”
From Neural correlates associated with suicide and nonsuicidal self-injury in youth (2021) · cites this paper as [123]

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Shenker, A. (1992) · Advances in Pediatrics · doi:10.1016/s0065-3101(24)00289-5 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
ADHD-related behavior among non-referred children: Parents' ratings of DSM-III-R symptoms
Kanbayashi, Y., Nakata, Y., Fujii, K., Kita, M., & Wada, K. (1994) · Child Psychiatry & Human Development · doi:10.1007/bf02251097 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Anatomical Asymmetries in the Adult and Developing Brain and their Implications for Function
Galaburda, A. M., & Geschwind, N. (1981) · Advances in Pediatrics · doi:10.1016/s0065-3101(22)00642-9 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Asymmetry in D-2 binding in female rat striata
Drew, K. L., Lyon, R. A., Titeler, M., & Glick, S. D. (1986) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/0006-8993(86)90678-5 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Toward a Neurobiologic Nosology of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Voeller, K. K. S. (1991) · Journal of Child Neurology · doi:10.1177/0883073891006001s01 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
The prevalence of borderline personality symptomatology among women with eating disorders
Sansone, R. A., Fine, M. A., Seuferer, S., & Bovenzi, J. M. S. (1989) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/1097-4679(198907)45:4 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Impaired alternation test performance in adult rats following prenatal alcohol exposure
Zimmerberg, B., Mattson, S. N., & Riley, E. P. (1989) · Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior · doi:10.1016/0091-3057(89)90246-3 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Methodology in neuroanatomic measurement
Courchesne, E., Yeung-Courchesne, R., & Egaas, B. (1994) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.44.2.203 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Computed Tomography of the Brain in Children with Minimal Brain Damage: A Preliminary Study of 46 Children
Bergström, K., & BILLE, B. S. V. (1978) · Neuropediatrics · doi:10.1055/s-0028-1091497 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
The biology of developmental dyslexia.
Rumsey, J. M. (1992) · PubMed · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Do hyperactive children and their siblings differ in IQ and academic achievement?
Halperin, J. M., & Gittelman, R. (1982) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/0165-1781(82)90013-0 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
The Diagnostic Value of Cerebellar-Vestibular Tests in Detecting Learning Disabilities, Dyslexia, and Attention Deficit Disorder
Levinson, H. N. (1990) · Perceptual and Motor Skills · doi:10.2466/pms.1990.71.1.67 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Right Hemisphere Dysfunction and Methylphenidate Effects in Children with Attention-Deficit/ Hyperactivity Disorder
MALONE, M. A., Couitis, J., Kershner, J. R., & Logan, W. J. (1994) · Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1089/cap.1994.4.245 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
A Short Short Form of the WISC and WAIS for Screening Purposes
Silverstein, A. B. (1967) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.2466/pr0.1967.20.2.682 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
CORRELATIONS BETWEEN ABNORMAL HIPPOCAMPAL MORPHOLOGY AND PREFRONTAL PHYSIOLOGY IN SCHIZOPHRENIA
Weinberger, D. R., Berman, K., & Torrey, E. F. (1992) · Clinical Neuropharmacology · doi:10.1097/00002826-199201001-00205 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Maternal ingestion of tyrosine during rat pregnancy modifies the offspring behavioral lateralization
Rodrı́guez, M., Santana, C., & Afonso, D. (1994) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/0031-9384(94)90033-7 · Cited by 9 · see citing works

Flagged first, then by citations

Sorted by citations

Inhibition and the right inferior frontal cortex
Aron, A. R., Robbins, T. W., & Poldrack, R. A. (2004) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2004.02.010 · Cited by 3,197 · see citing works
Altered baseline brain activity in children with ADHD revealed by resting-state functional MRI
Yu-Feng, Z., Yong, H., Chao-Zhe, Z., Qing-Jiu, C., Man-Qiu, S., Meng, L., Li-Xia, T., Tian-Zi, J., & Yu-Feng, W. (2007) · Brain and Development · doi:10.1016/j.braindev.2006.07.002 · Cited by 2,660 · see citing works
“All others correspond to P P 0.06. lum volume in ADHD subjects [2] [41].”
BackgroundInfluential
Basal ganglia and cerebellar loops: motor and cognitive circuits
Middleton, F. (2000) · Brain Research Reviews · doi:10.1016/s0165-0173(99)00040-5 · Cited by 1,940 · see citing works
Inhibition and impulsivity: behavioral and neural basis of response control
Bari, A., & Robbins, T. W. (2013) · Progress in Neurobiology · doi:10.1016/j.pneurobio.2013.06.005 · Cited by 1,921 · see citing works
Computerized training of working memory in children with ADHD – a randomized, controlled trial
Klingberg, T., Fernell, E., Olesen, P. J., Johnson, M., Gustafsson, P., Dahlström, K., Gillberg, C. G., Forssberg, H., & Westerberg, H. (2005) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/00004583-200502000-00010 · Cited by 1,949 · see citing works
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder is characterized by a delay in cortical maturation
Shaw, P., Eckstrand, K., Sharp, W., Blumenthal, J., Lerch, J. P., Greenstein, D., Clasen, L., Evans, A., Giedd, J., & Rapoport, J. L. (2007) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0707741104 · Cited by 1,819 · see citing works
Neuroscience of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: the search for endophenotypes
Castellanos, F. X., & Tannock, R. (2002) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nrn896 · Cited by 1,827 · see citing works
“Cerebellar hemispheric volumes are significantly smaller in ADHD patient”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Developmental Trajectories of Brain Volume Abnormalities in Children and Adolescents With Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
Castellanos, F. X. (2002) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.288.14.1740 · Cited by 1,646 · see citing works
“This is the first neuroimaging study to our knowledge to include a substantial number (n=49) of previously unmedicated children and adolescents with ADHD.”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citation
Structural magnetic resonance imaging of the adolescent brain
GIEDD, J. N. (2004) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1196/annals.1308.009 · Cited by 1,610 · see citing works
Close Interrelation of Motor Development and Cognitive Development and of the Cerebellum and Prefrontal Cortex
Diamond, A. D. (2000) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00117 · Cited by 1,509 · see citing works
Annual research review: enduring neurobiological effects of childhood abuse and neglect
Teicher, M. H., & Samson, J. A. (2016) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.12507 · Cited by 1,473 · see citing works
The neurobiological consequences of early stress and childhood maltreatment
Teicher, M. H., Andersen, S. L., Polcari, A., Anderson, C. M., Navalta, C. P., & Kim, D. M. (2003) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/s0149-7634(03)00007-1 · Cited by 1,465 · see citing works
Neurocognitive mechanisms of cognitive control: the role of prefrontal cortex in action selection, response inhibition, performance monitoring, and reward-based learning
Ridderinkhof, K. R., van den Wildenberg, W. P. M., Segalowitz, S. J., & Carter, C. S. (2004) · Brain and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2004.09.016 · Cited by 1,407 · see citing works
“…deficiencies (Aron, Dowson, Sahakian, & Robbins, 2003; Nigg, 2001; Ridderinkhof, Scheres, Oosterlaan, & Sergeant, in press), has been associated with abnormalities in PFC (especially in vlPFC; Casey et al., 1997; Castellanos et al., 1996; Sowell et al., 2003; Vaidya et al., 1998).”
Background
Functional connectivity of human striatum: a resting state FMRI study
Di Martino, A., Scheres, A., Margulies, D. S., Kelly, A. M. C., Uddin, L. Q., Shehzad, Z., Biswal, B., Walters, J. R., Castellanos, F. X., & Milham, M. P. (2008) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhn041 · Cited by 1,090 · see citing works
Clinical Practice Guideline: Diagnosis and Evaluation of the Child With Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
Committee on Quality Improvement, S. O. A.-D. D. (2000) · Pediatrics · doi:10.1542/peds.105.5.1158 · Cited by 1,076 · see citing works
Diagnosis and Treatment of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in Children and Adolescents
Goldman, L. S. (1998) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.279.14.1100 · Cited by 1,082 · see citing works
Quantitative magnetic resonance imaging of human brain development: ages 4–18
Giedd, J. N., Snell, J. W., Lange, N., Rajapakse, J. C., Casey, B. J., Kozuch, P. L., Vaituzis, A. C., Vauss, Y. C., Hamburger, S. D., Kaysen, D., et al. (1996) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/6.4.551 · Cited by 1,024 · see citing works
Hypofrontality in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder during higher-order motor control: a study with functional MRI
Rubia, K., Overmeyer, S., Taylor, E., Brammer, M., Williams, S. C. R., Simmons, A., & Bullmore, E. T. (1999) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/ajp.156.6.891 · Cited by 1,010 · see citing works
Atomoxetine Increases Extracellular Levels of Norepinephrine and Dopamine in Prefrontal Cortex of Rat A Potential Mechanism for Efficacy in Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
Bymaster, F. (2002) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1016/s0893-133x(02)00346-9 · Cited by 1,123 · see citing works
“The inhibition constant (K i ) values were calculated from IC 50 and K d values according to the method of Cheng and Prusoff (1973).”
Method
Insights into the neural basis of response inhibition from cognitive and clinical neuroscience
Chambers, C. D., Garavan, H., & Bellgrove, M. A. (2009) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2008.08.016 · Cited by 938 · see citing works
“Reduced volumes of the prefrontal cortex (including IFG), caudate and globus pallidus, particularly on the right, have been reliably reported (Castellanos et al., 1994, 1996; Aylward et al., 1996; Casey et al., 1997; Filipek et al., 1997; Sowell et al., 2003).”
Neurobiology of Executive Functions: Catecholamine Influences on Prefrontal Cortical Functions
Arnsten, A. F. T., & Li, B.-M. (2005) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2004.08.019 · Cited by 948 · see citing works
European consensus statement on diagnosis and treatment of adult ADHD: The European Network Adult ADHD
Kooij, S. J., Bejerot, S., Blackwell, A., Caci, H., Casas-Brugué, M., Carpentier, P. J., Edvinsson, D., Fayyad, J., Foeken, K., Fitzgerald, M., et al. (2010) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/1471-244x-10-67 · Cited by 928 · see citing works
“sum, cerebellum and right frontal areas, as well as increased cortical thinning [89-97].”
Meta-analysis of structural imaging findings in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder
Valera, E. M., Faraone, S. V., Murray, K. E., & Seidman, L. J. (2007) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.06.011 · Cited by 891 · see citing works
“…hyperactive sample; Inat, inattentive sample; IQ, e either explicitly stated as being matched or were assessed and showed no e; 2 sex; 3 handedness; 4 IQ or IQ estimate; 5 SES; 6 Tanner stage; 3 education level of mother and father; 14 head circumference; 15 usly included in Castellanos et al 1996.”
BackgroundInfluential
Specific Language Impairment is not Specific to Language: the Procedural Deficit Hypothesis
Ullman, M. T., & Pierpont, E. I. (2005) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/s0010-9452(08)70276-4 · Cited by 882 · see citing works
Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder
Posner, J., Polanczyk, G. V., & Sonuga-Barke, E. (2020) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(19)33004-1 · Cited by 835 · see citing works
Selective effects of methylphenidate in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a functional magnetic resonance study
Vaidya, C. J., Austin, G., Kirkorian, G., Ridlehuber, H. W., Desmond, J. E., Glover, G. H., & Gabrieli, J. D. E. (1998) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.95.24.14494 · Cited by 845 · see citing works
Implication of right frontostriatal circuitry in response inhibition and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.
CASEY, B. J., CASTELLANOS, F. X., GIEDD, J. N., MARSH, W. L., HAMBURGER, S. D., SCHUBERT, A. B., VAUSS, Y. C., VAITUZIS, A. C., DICKSTEIN, D. P., SARFATTI, S. E., et al. (1997) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/00004583-199703000-00016 · Cited by 800 · see citing works
Self-citation
Evaluating Dopamine Reward Pathway in ADHD: Clinical Implications
Volkow, N. D., Wang, G.-J., Kollins, S. H., Wigal, T. L., Newcorn, J. H., Telang, F., Fowler, J. S., Zhu, W., Logan, J., Ma, Y., et al. (2009) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.2009.1308 · Cited by 728 · see citing works
The Executive Functions and Self-Regulation: An Evolutionary Neuropsychological Perspective
Barkley, R. A. (2001) · Neuropsychology Review · doi:10.1023/a:1009085417776 · Cited by 734 · see citing works
“of inhibition believed to originate in the prefrontal-striatalcerebellar network (Castellanos et al., 1996; Filipeket al., 1997).”
Background
The Differential Assessment of Children's Attention: The Test of Everyday Attention for Children (TEA-Ch), normative sample and ADHD performance
Manly, T., Anderson, V., Nimmo‐Smith, I., Turner, A., Watson, P., & Robertson, I. H. (2001) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/1469-7610.00806 · Cited by 693 · see citing works
Neuropsychopharmacological mechanisms of stimulant drug action in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: a review and integration
Solanto, M. V. (1998) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/s0166-4328(97)00175-7 · Cited by 677 · see citing works
Structural Brain Imaging of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
Seidman, L. J., Valera, E. M., & Makris, N. (2005) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2004.11.019 · Cited by 676 · see citing works
The role of the cerebellum in schizophrenia
Andreasen, N. C., & Pierson, R. (2008) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2008.01.003 · Cited by 669 · see citing works
Basal Ganglia Output and Cognition: Evidence from Anatomical, Behavioral, and Clinical Studies
Middleton, F. A., & Strick, P. L. (2000) · Brain and Cognition · doi:10.1006/brcg.1999.1099 · Cited by 662 · see citing works
Differential patterns of striatal activation in young children with and without ADHD
Durston, S., Tottenham, N. T., Thomas, K. M., Davidson, M. C., Eigsti, I.-M., Yang, Y., Ulug, A. M., & Casey, B. J. (2003) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s0006-3223(02)01904-2 · Cited by 619 · see citing works
“…consistent with imaging literature on ADHD showing abnormal patterns of activity, symmetry, and volume of frontostriatal regions (Casey et al 1997a; Castellanos et al 1996; Ernst et al 1999; Vaidya et al 1998; Zametkin et al 1990) and anterior cingulate gyrus (Bush et al 1999; Vaidya et al 1998).”
Background
Amphetamine, past and present – a pharmacological and clinical perspective
Heal, D. J., Smith, S. L., Gosden, J., & Nutt, D. (2013) · Journal of Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1177/0269881113482532 · Cited by 622 · see citing works
“…ADHD have revealed anatomical alterations and functional changes consistent with reduced dopaminergic function in various dopamine-rich areas of the brain including the frontal cortex, striatum and globus pallidus (Castellanos, 2001; Castellanos et al., 1996; Ernst et al., 1998; Sieg et al., 1995).”
Background
Hippocampal Volume in Adolescent-Onset Alcohol Use Disorders
Bellis, M. D. D., Clark, D. B., Beers, S. R., Soloff, P. H., Boring, A. M., Hall, J., Kersh, A., & Keshavan, M. S. (2000) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.157.5.737 · Cited by 618 · see citing works
“In MRI studies of children and adolescents with ADHD, no hippocampal differences were seen between those with ADHD and healthy comparison subjects (58).”
Background
Gray Matter Volume Abnormalities in ADHD: Voxel-Based Meta-Analysis Exploring the Effects of Age and Stimulant Medication
Nakao, T., Radua, J., Rubia, K., & Mataix-Cols, D. (2011) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2011.11020281 · Cited by 588 · see citing works
Decreased gray matter concentration in the insular, orbitofrontal, cingulate, and temporal cortices of cocaine patients
Franklin, T. R., Acton, P. D., Maldjian, J. A., Gray, J. D., Croft, J. R., Dackis, C. A., O’Brien, C. P., & Childress, A. R. (2002) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s0006-3223(01)01269-0 · Cited by 600 · see citing works
“Coincidentally, other ADHD studies report decreased gray matter in some regions of the frontal lobes (Castellanos et al 1996) and hypofrontality in patients performing a motor task during fMRI (Rubia et al 1999).”
Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and hyperkinetic disorder
Jm, S., Sergeant, J. A., Taylor, E. A., Sonuga-Barke, E. J. S., Jensen, P. S., & Dp, C. (1998) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(97)11450-7 · Cited by 602 · see citing works
An integrative theory of attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder based on the cognitive and affective neurosciences
NIGG, J. T., & CASEY, B. J. (2005) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579405050376 · Cited by 593 · see citing works
“For example, MRI studies of ADHD have revealed abnormalities in the size and symmetry of the basal ganglia ~Castellanos et al., 1996; Castellanos, Giedd, Eckburg, Marsh, King, Hamburger, & Rapoport, 1994! and recent functional MRI studies show decreased activity in prefrontal cortex and basal…”
Background
Cerebellum in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: A morphometric MRI study
Berquin, P. C., Giedd, J. N., Jacobsen, L. K., Hamburger, S. D., Krain, A. L., Rapoport, J. L., & Castellanos, F. X. (1998) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.50.4.1087 · Cited by 564 · see citing works
Self-citation
Cortical abnormalities in children and adolescents with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder
Sowell, E. R., Thompson, P. M., Welcome, S. E., Henkenius, A. L., Toga, A. W., & Peterson, B. S. (2003) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(03)14842-8 · Cited by 567 · see citing works
Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and hyperkinetic disorder
Swanson, J. M., Sergeant, J. A., Taylor, E., Sonuga-Barke, E. J. S., Jensen, P. S., & Cantwell, D. P. (2001) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315054315-2 · Cited by 573 · see citing works
Meta‐analysis of structural MRI studies in children and adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder indicates treatment effects
Frodl, T., & Skokauskas, N. (2012) · Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica · doi:10.1111/j.1600-0447.2011.01786.x · Cited by 530 · see citing works
“Reduced right globus pallidus volumes in patients with ADHD compared with age- and gender-matched control subjects are in line with two of three volumetric MRI studies that manually assessed the globus pallidus and found reduced volumes in children with ADHD compared with healthy children (21, 22), whereas a study of…”
BackgroundResult
Increased striatal dopamine transporter in adult patients with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: effects of methylphenidate as measured by single photon emission computed tomography
Krause, K.-H., Dresel, S. H., Krause, J., Kung, H. F., & Tatsch, K. (2000) · Neuroscience Letters · doi:10.1016/s0304-3940(00)01040-5 · Cited by 521 · see citing works
Brain development and ADHD
Krain, A. L., & Castellanos, F. X. (2006) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2006.01.005 · Cited by 495 · see citing works
“More specifically, the prefrontal cortex (PFC) has been shown to be significantly smaller in ADHD children than controls (Castellanos et al., 1996; Durston et al., 2004; Filipek et al., 1997; Kates et al., 2002; Mostofsky et al., 2002) and in their unaffected siblings (Durston et al.”
BackgroundResultInfluential
Sexual dimorphism of the developing human brain
Giedd, J. N., Castellanos, F. X., Rajapakse, J. C., Vaituzis, A. C., & Rapoport, J. L. (1997) · Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s0278-5846(97)00158-9 · Cited by 500 · see citing works
Dissociations of cerebral cortex, subcortical and cerebral white matter volumes in autistic boys
Herbert, M. R., Ziegler, D. A., Deutsch, C., O’Brien, L. M., LANGE, N. D., Bakardjiev, A. I., Hodgson, J. M., Adrien, K. T., Steele, S., Makris, N., et al. (2003) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/awg110 · Cited by 494 · see citing works
“studies, as the overall and regional brain volumes for this control group are consistent with previously published normative brain volumes for children of similar age (Castellanos et al., 1996; Reiss et al., 1996; Giedd et al., 1999; Courchesne et al., 2001).”
Result
Stimulants: Therapeutic Actions in ADHD
Arnsten, A. F. T. (2006) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/sj.npp.1301164 · Cited by 473 · see citing works
“Numerous structural imaging studies have shown reduced size of the prefrontal cortex in ADHD patients, particularly in the right hemisphere (”
Background
Frontostriatal Microstructure Modulates Efficient Recruitment of Cognitive Control
Liston, C., Watts, R., Tottenham, N., Davidson, M. C., Niogi, S., Ulug, A. M., & Casey, B. J. (2006) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhj003 · Cited by 477 · see citing works
“This result adds to a growing body of evidence (Lim et al., 1999; Fredericksen et al., 2002; Ardekani et al., 2003) suggesting that genetic studies of disorders like ADHD and schizophrenia, which traditionally have focused on genes regulating dopaminergic neurotransmission, should also examine the regulation of myelin…”
Background
Neurobehavioral mechanisms of impulsivity: fronto-striatal systems and functional neurochemistry
Dalley, J. W., Mar, A. C., Economidou, D., & Robbins, T. W. (2008) · Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.pbb.2007.12.021 · Cited by 467 · see citing works
Neuropsychological functioning in people with ADHD across the lifespan
Seidman, L. J. (2006) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2006.01.004 · Cited by 468 · see citing works
“Castellanos et al. (1996) found that Full Scale IQ score correlated significantly with total brain volume and with left and right prefrontal regions.”
Background
Toward a quantitative description of large-scale neocortical dynamic function and EEG
Nunez, P. L. (2000) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00003253 · Cited by 462 · see citing works
Revisiting the role of the prefrontal cortex in the pathophysiology of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.
Halperin, J. M., & Schulz, K. P. (2006) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.4.560 · Cited by 446 · see citing works
Network homogeneity reveals decreased integrity of default-mode network in ADHD
Uddin, L. Q., Kelly, A. M. C., Biswal, B. B., Margulies, D. S., Shehzad, Z., Shaw, D., Ghaffari, M., Rotrosen, J., Adler, L. A., Castellanos, F. X., et al. (2008) · Journal of Neuroscience Methods · doi:10.1016/j.jneumeth.2007.11.031 · Cited by 452 · see citing works
Self-citation
Prevalence and Assessment of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in Primary Care Settings
Brown, R. T., Freeman, W. S., Perrin, J. M., Stein, M. T., Amler, R. W., Feldman, H. M., Pierce, K., & Wolraich, M. L. (2001) · PEDIATRICS · doi:10.1542/peds.107.3.e43 · Cited by 444 · see citing works
Quantitative Brain Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Girls With Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
Castellanos, F. X., Giedd, J. N., Berquin, P. C., Walter, J. M., Sharp, W. S., Tran, T., Vaituzis, A. C., Blumenthal, J. D., Nelson, J. E., Bastain, T. M., et al. (2001) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.58.3.289 · Cited by 438 · see citing works
“Studying girls with ADHD raises questions regarding severity and diagnostic va- lidity, 15,16 which we addressed by recruiting girls with ADHD in whom severity and phenomenologic characteristics were comparable with those of our previously studied boys with ADHD.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluential
Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorders in the Offspring of Mothers Exposed to Mild-Moderate Iodine Deficiency: A Possible Novel Iodine Deficiency Disorder in Developed Countries
Vermiglio, F., Presti, V. P. L., Moleti, M., SIDOTI, M., Tortorella, G., Scaffidi, G., Castagna, M. G., Mattina, F., Violi, M. A., Crisà, A., et al. (2004) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2004-0571 · Cited by 434 · see citing works
Treatment of Attention-Deficit–Hyperactivity Disorder
Elia, J., Ambrosini, P. J., & Rapoport, J. L. (1999) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejm199903113401007 · Cited by 433 · see citing works
Attention-deficit disorder (attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder without hyperactivity): A neurobiologically and behaviorally distinct disorder from attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (with hyperactivity)
DIAMOND, A. (2005) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579405050388 · Cited by 428 · see citing works
Prefrontal Cortex, Thalamus, and Cerebellar Volumes in Adolescents and Young Adults with Adolescent-Onset Alcohol Use Disorders and Comorbid Mental Disorders
Bellis, M. D., Narasimhan, A., Thatcher, D. L., Keshavan, M. S., Soloff, P., & Clark, D. B. (2005) · Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research · doi:10.1097/01.alc.0000179368.87886.76 · Cited by 424 · see citing works
“Alteration in the frontal-striatal circuitry underlies the psychopathology of ADHD and probably causes the related deficits of higher cognitive functions in these individuals (Berquin et al., 1998; Castellanos et al., 1996).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
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“ple, Castellanos et al. (1996) demonstrated a loss of”
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“Consistent with these results are MRI morphometry data in ADHD children, suggesting reduced white matter volumes in the right frontal lobe of ADHD children (Castellanos et al 1996; Filipek et al 1997).”
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Methylphenidate improves response inhibition in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder
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“Response inhibition deficits have been demonstrated in children with ADHD compared with healthy volunteers (see Schachar et al 1993 and Oosterlaan et al 1998 for meta-analysis), and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and electroencephalography (EEG) indicate brain differences at a specifically right frontal…”
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“, 1991), as are right prefrontal volume (Castellanos et al., 1996; Filipek et al., 1997), caudate volume (Castellanos et al.”
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Smaller prefrontal and premotor volumes in boys with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder
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“For instance, in one previous study in which aMRI was applied to cerebral cortical measurements in ADHD (Castellanos et al 1996), decreased volume was localized to the “right anterior frontal” region.”
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“This is a crucial implication in light of mounting evidence for cerebellar involvement in various neurologic and psychiatric conditions, including autism (15–17), attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (18), mood disorders (19), obsessive-”
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“Our finding of greater caudate activation in children is also consistent with other studies that reported younger children have larger caudate volumes than older children (Castellanos et al., 1996).”
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“In addition to relatively consistent findings of decreased total cerebral volume of B3 to 5% (Castellanos , 2001; Castellanos et al, 1996, 2002; Seidman et al, 2005; Valera et al, 2007), volumetric studies have also found more specific abnormalities within defined regions of the lateral prefrontal…”
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Sex differences in dopamine receptors and their relevance to ADHD
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“The typical pattern of asymmetry in the caudate nuclei is for the right to be larger than the left (Castellanos et al., 1996; Frazier et al., 1996; Reiss et al., 1996).”
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Meta-analysis of associations between human brain volume and intelligence differences: How strong are they and what do they mean?
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Larger deficits in brain networks for response inhibition than for visual selective attention in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
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“…children in fronto-striatal regions is consistent with structural neuroimaging research that shows ADHD subjects have smaller frontal and basal ganglia volumes (Aylward et al., 1996; Casey et al., 1997a; Castellanos et al., 1996, 2002; Filipek et al., 1997; Hynd et al., 1993; Yeo et al., 2003).”
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Cerebellar development and clinical outcome in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
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The role of prenatal stress in the etiology of developmental behavioural disorders
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“[18] Castellanos FX, Giedd JN, Marsh WL, Hamburger SD, Vaituzis AC, Dickstein DP, Sarfatti SE, Vauss YC, Snelll JW, Lange N, Kaysen D, Krain AL, Ritchie GF, Rajapakse JC, Rapoport JL.”
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Altered Control of Visual Fixation and Saccadic Eye Movements in Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
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“Third, anatomical neuroimaging studies have revealed altered architecture in the frontal lobes, caudate nucleus, and rostrum of the corpus callosum (Castellanos et al. 1996a, 2001; Giedd et al. 1994; Rubia et al. 1999).”
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DOPA Decarboxylase Activity in Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Adults. A [Fluorine-18]Fluorodopa Positron Emission Tomographic Study
Ernst, M., Zametkin, A. J., Matochik, J. A., Jons, P. H., & Cohen, R. M. (1998) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.18-15-05901.1998 · Cited by 320 · see citing works
“In addition, abnormal laterality and function have been reported in dopaminergic structures by MRI (Caparulo et al., 1981; Hynd et al., 1993; Aylward et al., 1996; Castellanos et al., 1996) and SPECT/PET (single-photon emission computed tomography/positron emission tomography), respectively (Lou et al.”
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National Institutes of Health Consensus Development Conference Statement: Diagnosis and Treatment of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
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Evaluation of Cerebellar Size in Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
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Evidence for a pure time perception deficit in children with ADHD
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“These two regions have been found to be underactivated during a time estimation task in adolescents with ADHD (Rubia et al., 1999a, 2000, 2001) and form part of grey matter areas that have been found to be morphologically reduced in patients with ADHD (Castellanos et al., 1996).”
Background
Alpha-2 Adrenergic Receptor Agonists for the Treatment of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: Emerging Concepts from New Data
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“Numerous structural imaging studies have shown reduced size of the PFC in ADHD patients, particularly in the right hemisphere (Castellanos et al., 1996; Casey et al., 1997; Filipek et al., 1997; Giedd et al., 2001; Kates et al., 2002; Hill et al., 2003; Sow-ell et al., 2003).”
The Nature and Heritability of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
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“…are the recent ﬁndings from neuroimaging studies of ADHD of structural anomalies in the cerebellum and basal ganglia (e.g., Berquin et al., 1998; Castellanos et al., 1996, 2001; Giedd et al., management, inability tasks, and present actions While cognitive modularity ( this may 2001; Mostofsky…”
Executive Function Profile of Children With Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Shallice, T., Marzocchi, G., Coşer, Ş., Savio, M. D. D., Meuter, R., & Rumiati, R. (2002) · Developmental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1207/s15326942dn2101_3 · Cited by 346 · see citing works
“Moreover, the limited investigations of direct measures of brain states and activity that have been carried out in ADHD broadly support these positions (Casey et al., 1997; Castellanos et al., 1996).”
Background

Anatomic magnetic resonance imaging studies of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder
Castellanos, F. X. (2002) · Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience · doi:10.31887/dcns.2002.4.4/fxcastellanos · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Volumetric MRI analysis comparing subjects having attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder with normal controls
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Aportaciones de la resonancia magnética estructural al esclarecimiento de la neurobiología del trastorno por déficit de atención/hiperactividad: hacia la identificación de un fenotipo neuroanatómico
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Quantitative morphology of the caudate nucleus in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
Castellanos, F. X., Giedd, J. N., Eckburg, P. B., Marsh, W., Vaituzis, A. C., Kaysen, D. L., Hamburger, S. D., & Rapoport, J. L. (1994) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/ajp.151.12.1791 · Cited by 429 · see citing works
Trastorno por déficit de atención con hiperactividad. Asimetrías cerebrales observadas en resonancia magnética
Pueyo, R., Zunzarren, C. M., Vendrell, P., Mataró, M., Estévez-González, A., García‐Sánchez, C., & Junqué, C. (2000) · Revista de Neurología · doi:10.33588/rn.3010.2000026 · Cited by 41 · see citing works

Authors: Castellanos, F. X.
Affiliations: National Institute of Mental Health (US)
Corresponding author: Castellanos, F. Xavier
ORCID: Castellanos, F. Xavier
Venue: Archives of General Psychiatry
Publisher: American Medical Association (AMA)
Published: 1996-07-01
Volume: 53
Issue: 7
Pages: 607
ISSN: 0003-990X (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1001/archpsyc.1996.01830070053009
OpenAlex: W2097559385
Cited by: 1,183
References: 102
Citations by year: 2026: 7 · 2025: 14 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 14 · 2022: 11 · 2021: 11 · 2020: 20 · 2019: 21 · 2018: 18 · 2017: 19 · 2016: 31 · 2015: 37 · 2014: 40 · 2013: 39 · 2012: 52
FWCI: 25.66
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Archives of General Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Autism Spectrum Disorder Research
Keywords: attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, brain volumetry, brain volume, caudate nucleus, globus pallidus, cerebellum, corpus callosum, lateral ventricle, hemispheric lateralization, basal ganglia, children, brain structure
MeSH terms: Adolescent, Age Factors, Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity, Basal Ganglia, Body Height, Body Weight, Brain, Caudate Nucleus, Cerebellum, Cerebral Ventricles, Child, Child, Preschool, Frontal Lobe, Globus Pallidus, Humans, Intelligence Tests, Functional Laterality, Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Male, Discriminant Analysis, Prefrontal Cortex

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Quantitative brain magnetic resonance imaging in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder

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