Cited by 234Attention Deficit Hyperactivity DisorderDevelopmental and Educational NeuropsychologyAutism Spectrum Disorder Research

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Etiologic classification of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.

Millichap, J. Gordon·2008·PEDIATRICS

DOI 10.1542/peds.2007-1332

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Abstract

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder is a neurobiological syndrome with an estimated prevalence among children and adolescents of 5%. It is a highly heritable disorder, but acquired factors in etiology are sometimes uncovered that may be amenable to preventive measures or specific therapy. Early reports have described symptoms similar to attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder that followed brain trauma or viral encephalitis, and recent MRI studies have demonstrated brain volumetric changes that may be involved in the pathophysiology of the syndrome. The American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic Statistical Manual, introduced in 1968, emphasizes symptomatic criteria in diagnosis. Here, an overview of environmental factors in the etiology of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder is presented to encourage more emphasis and research on organic causal factors, preventive intervention, and specific therapies. An organic theory and the genetic and biochemical basis of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder are briefly reviewed, and an etiologic classification is suggested. Environmental factors are prenatal, perinatal, and postnatal in origin. Pregnancy- and birth-related risk factors include maternal smoking and alcohol ingestion, prematurity, hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy, and thyroid deficiency. Childhood illnesses associated with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder include virus infections, meningitis, encephalitis, head injury, epilepsy, toxins, and drugs. More controversial factors discussed are diet-related sensitivities and iron deficiency. Early prenatal recognition, prevention, and treatment of environmental etiologies of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder may reduce physician reliance on symptomatic modification with medication, a frequent reason for parental concern.

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Authors: Millichap, J. G.
Affiliations: Northwestern University (US)
Corresponding author: Millichap, J. Gordon
ORCID: Millichap, J. Gordon
Venue: PEDIATRICS
Publisher: American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP)
Published: 2008-02-01
Volume: 121
Issue: 2
Pages: e358-e365
ISSN: 0031-4005 (ISSN-L)
1098-4275
DOI: 10.1542/peds.2007-1332
OpenAlex: W2104674093
Cited by: 234
References: 69
Citations by year: 2026: 4 · 2025: 8 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 8 · 2022: 11 · 2021: 14 · 2020: 15 · 2019: 7 · 2018: 6 · 2017: 14 · 2016: 18 · 2015: 15 · 2014: 21 · 2013: 16 · 2012: 22
FWCI: 2.01
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: PEDIATRICS (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Autism Spectrum Disorder Research
Keywords: attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, etiology, etiologic classification, environmental risk factors, prenatal risk factors, perinatal risk factors, maternal smoking, maternal alcohol exposure, preterm birth, hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy, thyroid hormone deficiency, viral encephalitis, meningitis, traumatic brain injury, epilepsy, iron deficiency, brain volumetric changes, heritability, genetic basis, biochemical basis, prevention
MeSH terms: Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity, Diet, Environment, Female, Humans, Pregnancy, Prenatal Exposure Delayed Effects, Risk Factors, Thyroid Hormone Resistance Syndrome

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Etiologic classification of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.

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