Egyptian Imperial Economy in Canaan: Reaction to the Climate Crisis at the End of the Late Bronze Age

One mitochondrial haplotype T1c sample from Megiddo carries a Y-chromosome that was identified as zebu.

“One of the mitochondrial haplotype T1c samples from Megiddo carries a Y-chromo-VRPH ZKLFK ZDV LGHQWL¿HG DV ]HEX MEIRI et al. 2017).”

• cites MEIRI et al. 2017 sourceSupported

The entire sequence at Megiddo is accompanied by a rigorous programme of radiocarbon dating, providing a secure absolute chronology.

“the entire sequence is accompanied by a rigorous programme of radiocarbon dating, providing a secure absolute chronology (TOFFOLO et al. 2014;BOARETTO in press).”

• cites TOFFOLO et al. 2014 sourcePartly supported

  The Introduction (p. 3) describes a comprehensive radiocarbon programme for Megiddo’s Late Bronze and Iron Age phases, supporting the claim of a rigorous absolute chronology for those periods. But the Conclusions (p. 22) say future work is expected to extend the model to the Middle and Early Bronze Ages to provide a full Bronze and Iron Age sequence; this source does not support 'the entire sequence' as already dated. (LLM, conf=0.90)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites BOARETTO in pressNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

All three Egyptian-administration sites (Beth Shean, Kamid el-Loz/Kumidi, Tell Kazel/Sumur) show high frequencies of cattle during the Late Bronze Age II, ranging between 25 and 50% of the livestock.

“All three show high frequencies of cattle during the Late Bronze Age II, ranging between 25 and 50 % of the livestock; age information is not available, and temporal trends within the Late Bronze Age could not be examined.”

• cites HORWITZ 2006Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites BÖKÖNYI 1990Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites CHAHOUD 2015Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The Megiddo T1c sample with zebu Y-chromosome comes from a late Iron IIA context (Level H-5).

“This sample, which comes from a late Iron IIA context (Level H-5, late Iron IIA)”

This sample provides the earliest evidence for hybridisation between taurine cattle and zebu in the region.

“provides the earliest evidence for hybridisation between taurine cattle and zebu in the region.”

Area H's consuming society is manifested in the presence of meat-rich parts of prime-age animals.

“This is manifested in the presence of meat-rich parts of prime-age animals.”

Four datasets point to significant changes in the production of grain during the later phases of the Late Bronze Age.

“Together, they SRLQW WR VLJQL¿FDQW FKDQJHV LQ WKH SURGXFWLRQ RI grain during the later phases of the Late Bronze Age, which we interpret as stemming from imperial decisions related to the dry climate crisis in the second half of the 13 th and the 12 th century BCE.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The four datasets are valid proxies for grain growing and dry farming in Canaan.

In Area K, in the Late Bronze I, the young age of cattle, along with their low frequency, does not attest a tilt toward a use for agriculture.

“This is not the case in Area K: in the Late Bronze I, the young age of cattle (along with their low frequency) does not attest a tilt toward a use for agriculture.”

In Area K, starting in the Late Bronze IIA, cattle were kept to an older age.

“Yet, starting in the Late Bronze IIA cattle were kept to an older age (Table 3; for details, see SAPIR-HEN in press).”

• cites SAPIR-HEN in pressNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Cattle frequencies in the livestock at Megiddo increased from about 12% in the Late Bronze I, to 18% in the Late Bronze IIA, 24% in the Late Bronze IIB, and 28% in the Late Bronze III, as an average for the two areas.

“Starting with ~12 % cattle in the livestock (sheep, goats and cattle) in the Late Bronze I, a gradual increase is evident from the Late Bronze IIA with 18 %, through the Late Bronze IIB with 24 %, to the Late Bronze III with 28 % cattle in the livestock (the numbers are the average for the two areas).”

The percentage of glossed flint tools (sickle blades, geometric sickles and other glossed items) in the total number of tools seemingly increased in both Areas H and K at Megiddo.

“With all due caution (as a result of the relatively small assemblages in some of the relevant layers), increase in the percentage of these tools (in the total number of tools) can seemingly be observed in both Areas H and K (Table 4, based on ELLIS 2013 for Levels K-8, K-7 and K-6; ROSENBERG-YEFET in press for Area H and Levels K-10 and K-9).”

• cites ELLIS 2013 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites ROSENBERG-YEFET in pressNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Despite differences between the inhabitants of the two areas, in the Late Bronze I to the Late Bronze III they exhibit similar animal frequencies.

“Despite the above-mentioned differences between the inhabitants of the two areas -consumption and production groups (expressed in the DJHSUR¿OHV PRUH EHORZ ± LQ WKH /DWH %URQ]H , WR the Late Bronze III they exhibit similar animal frequencies.”

Area H's animal economy is typical of a consuming society that does not manage herds, but rather receives its meat from outside sources.

“Its animal economy is typical of a consuming society that does not manage herds, but rather receives its meat from outside sources.”

In the Late Bronze IIA, together with their growing importance, no culling of cattle occurs before the age of two years.

“In the Late Bronze IIA, together with their growing importance, no culling of cattle occurs before the age of two years.”

Four datasets provide evidence for the expansion of grain growing in Canaan in the second half of the 13th century and the 12th century BCE.

“In this article we discuss four datasets that provide evidence for the expansion of grain growing in Canaan in the second half of the 13 th century and the 12 th century BCE: the faunal and ÀLQW UHFRUGV IURP 0HJLGGR WKH SROOHQ GLDJUDP IRU the Sea of Galilee and the ancient DNA study of Bronze and Iron Age cattle in the Levant.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The four datasets are valid proxies for grain growing and dry farming in Canaan.

The most pronounced site-wide change in the animal economy during the Late Bronze Age, beginning in the Late Bronze IIA, is the increase in cattle frequencies.

“The most pronounced site-wide change in the animal economy during the Late Bronze Age (beginning in the Late Bronze IIA) is the increase in cattle frequencies (Table 2; for details see SAPIR-HEN in press).”

• cites SAPIR-HEN in pressNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Expansion of cereal farming is also attested in the pollen record from the Sea of Galilee.

“Expansion of cereal farming is also attested in the pollen record from the Sea of Galilee.”

Detailed faunal assemblages from Megiddo show a significant increase of cattle in the livestock.

“The detailed fau-QDO DVVHPEODJHV IURP 0HJLGGR VKRZ D VLJQL¿FDQW LQFUHDVH RI FDWWOH LQ WKH OLYHVWRFN”

The above-discussed datasets show an intensification of grain culture in the Jezreel Valley in particular and probably in Canaan in general, starting in the Late Bronze IIA and accelerating in the Late Bronze IIB and Late Bronze III.

“This aspect is now provided by the above-discussed datasets, ZKLFK VKRZ DQ LQWHQVL¿FDWLRQ RI JUDLQ FXOWXUH LQ the Jezreel Valley in particular and probably in Canaan in general, starting in the Late Bronze IIA and accelerating in the Late Bronze IIB and Late Bronze III.”

Almost all hieratic inscriptions come from sites located close to the southern fringe, from the southernmost urban centres of the period (Lachish, Tel Sera, Tel Haror, Ashkelon).

“Almost all of them come from sites located close to the southern fringe, in fact from the southernmost urban centres of the period (Lachish, Tel Sera, Tel Haror, Ashkelon).”

All records discussed in the paper, including the textual evidence for droughts and famine, assemble to the same period of time, c. 1250-1100 BCE.

“All records discussed here, including the textual evidence for droughts and famine, assemble to the same period of time, c. 1250-1100 BCE.”

The datasets presented in the paper seem to testify to the expansion of dry farming in Canaan in the later phases of the Late Bronze Age.

“The datasets presented here seem to testify to the expansion of dry farming in Canaan in the later phases of the Late Bronze Age.”

Megiddo is the only site that supplies data for a close examination per sub-phases of the Late Bronze Age.

“Since Megiddo is the only site which supplies data for a close examination per sub-phases of the Late Bronze Age, we cannot tell if this trend characterises other places and regions in Canaan.”

Temporal trends within the Late Bronze Age could not be examined for the three Egyptian-administration sites.

“age information is not available, and temporal trends within the Late Bronze Age could not be examined.”

• cites HORWITZ 2006Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites BÖKÖNYI 1990Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites CHAHOUD 2015Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Efforts to expand dry farming in Canaan were probably related to the dry climate event in the later phases of the Late Bronze Age.

“Efforts to expand dry farming in Canaan were probably related to the dry climate event in the later phases of the Late Bronze Age, which has recently been detected in several pollen records from the Eastern Mediterranean.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The dry climate event in the later phases of the Late Bronze Age affected Canaan specifically.

Zebu have better resistance to insects, ticks and protozoa than taurine cattle.

“as well as a better resistance to insects, ticks and protozoa (EPSTEIN 1971).”

• cites EPSTEIN 1971Not checked — no full text of the source

The scarce data (a single sample) indicate that the taurine cattle-zebu hybridisation could have taken place any time before c. 840 BCE.

“the scarce data at hand (a single sample) indicates that the taurine cattlezebu hybridisation could have taken place any time before c. 840 BCE (the date of destruction of Level H-5).”

The zebu evidence may point to a direct involvement of the Egyptian administration in Canaan in the expansion of grain production.

“Therefore, the zebu evidence may point to a direct involvement of the Egyptian administration in Canaan in the expansion of grain production.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: In the Late Bronze Age, Canaan was a province of the Egyptian Empire and was governed by Egyptian bureaucrats.

The zebu is advantageous as a plough animal, especially in hot and arid zones such as the eastern and southern fringe areas of Canaan.

“The zebu is, therefore, advantageous as a plough animal, especially in hot and arid zones, such as the eastern and southern fringe areas of Canaan.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Zebu cattle and their crossbreds are dominant in arid regions such as the Indian subcontinent and most of Africa.

Zebu have better heat tolerance than taurine cattle, due to low metabolic rates, many large sweat glands and large skin surface.

“Zebu have a better heat tolerance (due to low metabolic rates, many large sweat glands and large skin surface)”

• cites EPSTEIN 1971Not checked — no full text of the source

These data suggest that Egyptian taurine cattle were translocated to the southern Levant in the Late Bronze Age or before.

“These data suggest that Egyptian taurine cattle were translocated to the southern Levant in the Late Bronze Age or before.”

The detailed Megiddo stratigraphic-chronological record offers a glimpse into a development in the material culture of the site that seems connected to an expansion of dry farming.

“The detailed Megiddo stratigraphic-chronological record offers a glimpse into a development in the material culture of the site, which seems to be connected to an expansion of dry farming.3”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Glossed flint tools (sickle blades, geometric sickles and other glossed items) indicate harvesting activities.

The significant changes in grain production during the later phases of the Late Bronze Age stemmed from imperial decisions related to the dry climate crisis in the second half of the 13th and 12th century BCE.

“Together, they SRLQW WR VLJQL¿FDQW FKDQJHV LQ WKH SURGXFWLRQ RI grain during the later phases of the Late Bronze Age, which we interpret as stemming from imperial decisions related to the dry climate crisis in the second half of the 13 th and the 12 th century BCE.”

The ancient DNA results show an increase in the frequency of mitochondrial Haplogroup T1 from one of five samples dating to the Late Bronze II-III to all five samples dating to the Iron IIA-B.

“The results show an increase in the frequency of mitochondrial Haplogroup T1, a unique genetic signature which is dominant in Africa: IURP RQH RI ¿YH VDPSOHV GDWLQJ WR WKH /DWH %URQ]H ,,±,,, 0HJLGGR /HYHO .WR DOO ¿YH VDPSOHV GDWing to the Iron IIA-B (Levels H-5 and H-4 at Megiddo, Iron IIA and IIB respectively).”

• cites MEIRI et al.LQ SUHVVNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The most logical date for the taurine-zebu hybridisation is in the Late Bronze Age.

“The most logical date would be in the Late Bronze Age”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: In the Late Bronze Age, Canaan was a province of the Egyptian Empire and was governed by Egyptian bureaucrats.

Megiddo has a continuous, tight sequence of layers covering the entire Late Bronze Age.

“It has a continuous, tight sequence of layers which cover the entire Late Bronze Age (Table 1)”

The observed increase in glossed flint tools at Megiddo cannot be determined to characterise other places and regions in Canaan.

“Since Megiddo is the only site which supplies data for a close examination per sub-phases of the Late Bronze Age, we cannot tell if this trend characterises other places and regions in Canaan.”

Cattle at Megiddo were increasingly exploited for the plough in the Late Bronze IIA and later phases.

“The combination of these factors, occurring concurrently in the Late Bronze IIA and intensifying in the later phases of the Late Bronze, suggests that cattle were increasingly exploited for the plough (see e. g.GRIGSON 1995;SASSON 2005)”

• cites GRIGSON 1995Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites SASSON 2005Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Sedentary settlement activity in most of Canaan in the Late Bronze Age was relatively low.

“This growth in cereal-pollen is especially noteworthy in view of the relatively low sedentary settlement activity in most of Canaan in the Late Bronze Age (e. g., GONEN 1984, 66; for the western Jezreel Valley, see FINKELSTEIN et al. 2006; for the Beth-shean Valley, see MAEIR 2010, 178 and maps on pp.160, 166; for the Lower Galilee, see GAL 1992, 13, 56).”

• cites GONEN 1984, 66 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites FINKELSTEIN et al. 2006Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites MAEIR 2010Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The dry climate event in the later phases of the Late Bronze Age has recently been detected in several pollen records from the Eastern Mediterranean.

“Efforts to expand dry farming in Canaan were probably related to the dry climate event in the later phases of the Late Bronze Age, which has recently been detected in several pollen records from the Eastern Mediterranean.”

Age information is not available for the three Egyptian-administration sites.

“age information is not available, and temporal trends within the Late Bronze Age could not be examined.”

• cites HORWITZ 2006Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites BÖKÖNYI 1990Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites CHAHOUD 2015Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The growing importance of dry farming around Megiddo is demonstrated by the cattle exploitation pattern.

“and hence demonstrates the gradual growing importance of dry farming around Megiddo.”

The period of Egypt's rule in Canaan in the Late Bronze is the most reasonable period for the translocation of Egyptian taurine cattle to the southern Levant.

“The period of Egypt's rule in Canaan in the Late Bronze is the most reasonable.”

The ceramic record at Megiddo is intensive, enabling a reliable relative chronology.

“the ceramic record is intensive, enabling a reliable relative chronology (MARTIN 2013;in press)”

• cites MARTIN 2013;in press sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

A wet period during the middle of the 14th century BCE is testified in Sea of Galilee pollen evidence.

“Indeed, a wet period during the middle of the 14 th century BCE LV WHVWL¿HG LQ WKH 6HD RI *DOLOHH SROOHQ HYLGHQFH (Fig. 2).”

• cites Fig. 2Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The Levant's system of urban centres from Amman in the south via Damascus, Hama and Homs, to Aleppo in the north is characterised by the ca. 200-300 mm annual precipitation line.

“Regarding the Levant, we refer mainly to the ca.200-300 mm annual precipitation line that characterises the system of urban centres from Amman in the south via Damascus, Hama and Homs, to Aleppo in the north.”

The same vulnerability to deteriorating precipitation holds true for the southern fringe-the Gaza, Besor, southern Shephelah line.

“The same holds true for the southern fringe -the Gaza, Besor, southern Shephelah line.”

The Sea of Galilee and Dead Sea studies provide a relatively accurate date of the dry period to c. 1250-1100 BCE.

“The Sea of Galilee and Dead Sea studies provide a relatively accurate date of the dry period to c. 1250-1100 BCE -approximately in parallel to the period of growth in SORXJK FDWWOH DQG ÀLQW WRROV UHODWHG WR KDUYHVWLQJ DW Megiddo and the peak in cereal pollen at the Sea of Galilee.”

• cites LANGGUT, FINKELSTEIN and LITT 2013 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites LANGGUT et al. 2014 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Both the textual and archaeological materials seem to indicate that on a daily basis, Canaan was dominated by a relatively small number of bureaucrats and troops.

“Both the textual and archaeological materials seem to indicate that on a daily basis (to differ from the few major military campaigns to the north), Canaan was dominated by a relatively small number of bureaucrats and troops (note requests in the Amarna letters to send 50 or 100 soldiers in order to pacify a local crisis).”

The Aphek letter, datable to c. 1230 BCE according to historically known individuals mentioned in it, refers to an urgent need of grain in the north.

“The Aphek letter, which can be dated quite precisely to c. 1230 BCE according to historicallyknown individuals mentioned in it (SINGER 1983), refers to an urgent need of grain in the north.”

• cites SINGER 1983Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

In the late 13th and early 12th century BCE, there was famine in Hatti and Ugarit, as indicated by letters about grain shipments and famine.

“The king of Hatti writes to Ugarit (RS 20.212) about a vital grain shipment, which is”

• Also stated in: § Discussion · plain

  “Since there is famine in your house, we shall starve to death.”

• cites SINGER 1999Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites SINGER 2000Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites RS 34.152Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The hieratic inscriptions provide a glimpse into Egyptian economic management of Canaan, especially in reference to harvest taxes, mentioning large quantities of grain.

“They provide a glimpse into the Egyptian economic management of Canaan, especially in reference to harvest taxes, mentioning large quantities of grain (GOLDWASSER 1984, 86;GOLDWASSER and WIMMER 1999;SWEENEY 2004).”

• cites GOLDWASSER 1984 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites GOLDWASSER and WIMMER 1999Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites SWEENEY 2004Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

In absolute terms, this expansion of grain growing in Canaan dates from the 14th or early 13th century to the 12th century BCE.

“In absolute terms, this means from the 14 th or early 13 th century to the 12 th century BCE.”

The Amarna letters contain information about royal Egyptian estates in the Jezreel Valley.

“The Amarna letters contain information about royal Egyptian estates in the Jezreel Valley (ALT 1924; NA'AMAN 1988).”

• cites ALT 1924Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites NA'AMAN 1988Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The request for grain in the Aphek letter was addressed to an Egyptian official stationed in Canaan.

“To WKH LVVXH GLVFXVVHG KHUH LW LV VLJQL¿FDQW WKDW WKH request for grain was addressed to an Egyptian RI¿FLDO VWDWLRQHG LQ &DQDDQ”

Life-threatening situations resulting from prolonged droughts could have developed in the southern and eastern fringe areas of the Levant as well as in Anatolia and the north.

“Life-threatening situations resulting from prolonged droughts could have developed in the southern and eastern fringe areas of the Levant as well as in Anatolia and the north.”

The hieratic inscriptions may testify not simply to taxation and storage of large quantities of grain, but to attempts to stabilise the situation in the area, which must have suffered sorely from deteriorating climate conditions.

“They may testify not simply to taxation and the storage of large quantities of grain, but to attempts to stabilise the situation in the area, which must have suffered sorely from the deteriorating climate conditions.”

The king of Hatti writes to Ugarit (RS 20.212) about a vital grain shipment.

“The king of Hatti writes to Ugarit (RS 20.212) about a vital grain shipment, which is”

• cites RS 20.212Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The distribution of the hieratic inscriptions is mainly in the southern part of the Shephelah and coastal plain.

“Their distribution -mainly in the southern part of the Shephelah and coastal plain -is noteworthy and will be discussed below.”

Crown lands devoted to grain growing are mentioned in relation to the Egyptian administration centre of Sumur on the coast (EA 60).

“Crown lands devoted to grain growing are also mentioned in relation to the Egyptian administration centre of Sumur on the coast (EA 60 -MORAN 1992, 131-132)”

• cites EA 60Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites MORAN 1992Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

A major dry climate event in the Eastern Mediterranean and Ancient Near East in the Late Bronze Age has recently been detected in pollen records from sediment cores from the Sea of Galilee and the Dead Sea, the coast of Syria, Cyprus and the Nile Delta.

“This climate crisis has recently been detected in studies of pollen records in sediment cores from the Sea of Galilee and the Dead Sea (LANGGUT, FINKELSTEIN and LITT 2013; LANGGUT et al. 2014), the coast of Syria (KANIEWSKI et al. 2010; SORREL and MATHIS 2016), Cyprus (KANIEWSKI et al. 2013) and the Nile Delta (BERNHARDT, HORTON and STANLY 2012).”

• cites LANGGUT, FINKELSTEIN and LITT 2013 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites LANGGUT et al. 2014 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites KANIEWSKI et al. 2010Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The Egyptian administration in Canaan took steps to address the problem, no doubt instructed by the imperial authorities.

“The new data presented above indicate that the Egyptian administration in Canaan -no doubt instructed by the imperial authorities -took steps to address the problem.”

Royal granaries in Jaffa are referred to in an Amarna tablet (EA 294).

“and royal granaries in Jaffa are referred to in an Amarna tablet (EA 294;MORAN 1992, 336-337).”

• cites EA 294Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites MORAN 1992Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The absence of mention of droughts and famine in the Amarna correspondence means that at that time the climate upheaval had not yet started.

“This means that at that time the climate upheaval had not yet started.”

These datasets seem to be related to evidence for a contemporary dry climate event detected in several pollen records from the Eastern Mediterranean.

“These datasets seem to be related to evidence for a contemporary dry climate event detected in several pollen records from the Eastern Mediterranean.”

An Amarna letter refers to curvèe workers in the fields of Shunama, identified with the mound in the village of Sulam in the middle of the Jezreel Valley, 14 km east of Megiddo.

“Especially noteworthy is EA ZKLFK UHIHUV WR FXUYqH ZRUNHUV LQ WKH ¿HOGV RI a town named Shunama = the mound in the village of Sulam in the middle of the valley, 14 km to the east of Megiddo.”

• cites EANot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

A ten or 20% reduction in precipitation from the current annual average of c. 550 mm at Megiddo could have been overcome by economic planning, especially when the country was under imperial rule.

“Ten or 20 % reduction in precipitation from the current annual average of c. 550 mm at Megiddo could have been overcome by economic planning, especially when the country was under imperial rule.”

In the green parts of the Levant, including the Jezreel Valley, the dry climate period is hardly supposed to bring about collapse.

“Needless to say, in the”

The increase of grain growing land could have been the result of an economic decision taken by the Egyptian imperial administration in Canaan in order to cope with the crisis: stabilise the situation along the southern and eastern desert fringe areas of Canaan and supply grain to the badly stricken lands of the northern Levant and beyond.

“The increase of grain growing land could have been the result of an economic decision taken by the Egyptian imperial administration in Canaan in order to cope with the crisis: stabilise the situation along the southern and eastern desert fringe areas of Canaan and supply grain to the badly stricken lands of the northern Levant and beyond.”