Offenders, Sinners and Criminals: The Consumption of Forbidden Food

May combine two claims.

The Daoseng ge contains some strict regulations concerning the consumption of certain types of food, and stipulates physical punishments for a failure to adhere to them.

“It too contains some strict regulations concerning the consumption of certain types of food, and stipulates physical punishments for a failure to adhere to them.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

They criticise the monks of being worse than common people, especially because the monks promised to follow the path and to abandon all desire.

“They criticise the monks of being worse than common people, especially because the monks promised to follow the path and to abandon all desire.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Some animals, because they are eaten by low class people, should also be avoided out of fear of offending rich benefactors.

“Others, because they are eaten by low class people should also be avoided out of fear of offending the rich benefactors.”

• cites T.1421: 148b10-149a3Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Jaworski 1929-1930Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites T.1425: 486a24-487a28Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

All vinayas promote a modest life with a strict ban on the consumption of certain kinds of food.

“All vinayas promote a modest life with a strict ban on the consumption of certain kinds of food.”

May combine two claims.

Monks or nuns who transgress the food prohibitions commit an offence and are to be punished.

“Monks or nuns who transgress the food prohibitions commit an offence and are to be punished.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

These punishments are not very severe, and harsh repressive measures are not given.

“These punishments are not very severe, and harsh repressive measures are not given.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The introductory story to the precept on alcohol appears in all vinayas.

“This is clearly exemplified by the introductory story to the precept on alcohol, a story that appears in all vinayas.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A prominent argument is that the members of the samgha ought to be conscious of the social position of the monasteries.

“A prominent argument is that the members of the samgha ought to be conscious of the social position of the monasteries.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Mahīśāsakavinaya further insists that drunken monks fill the lay followers with indignation.

“The Mahīśāsakavinaya (T.1421: 59c27-60a1) further insists that drunken monks fill the lay followers with indignation.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

In addition, it is underlined that the consumption of wrong food has a bad effect on the progress on the Buddhist path.

“In addition, it is underlined that the consumption of wrong food has a bad effect on the progress on the Buddhist path.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Some animals just have a bad smell.

“Finally, some animals just have a bad smell”

• cites T.1421: 148b10-149a3Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Jaworski 1929-1930Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites T.1425: 486a24-487a28Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Other animals have magical powers, or might attack the monk.

“Other animals have magical powers, or might attack the monk.”

• cites T.1421: 148b10-149a3Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Jaworski 1929-1930Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites T.1425: 486a24-487a28Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Pāli vinaya considers dog flesh to be disgusting without giving further explanation.

“Finally, the Pāli vinaya considers dog flesh to be disgusting without giving further explanation.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Eating human flesh is the worst offence.

“Eating human flesh is the worst offence.”

May combine two claims.

In the vinayas, eating human flesh is the worst offence and is prohibited.

“Eating human flesh is the worst offence.It needs no explanation.Human beings just cannot be eaten.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Some kinds of meat are the meat of disrespectful low caste people.

“Another reason is that some kinds of meat are the meat of disrespectful low caste people.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Two translations of the Bodhisattvabhūmi were made in the 5th century.

“of which two translations are made in the 5th century.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The first ten rules of the Fanwang jing are defined as bodhisattva pārājika offences (pusa boluoyi zui).

“The first ten rules of the Fanwang jing are defined as bodhisattva pārājika offences (pusa boluoyi zui 菩 薩 波 羅 夷 罪).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The bad smell of onions and leek is not as penetrating as the smell of garlic.

“Still, it is not as penetrating as the smell of garlic.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Fanwang jing was in fact composed in China probably around the middle of the 5th century.

“it is in fact a text composed in China probably around the middle of the 5th century.”

• cites [20]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The Fanwang jing is traditionally said to have been translated from Sanskrit into Chinese by Kumārajīva in 406.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The reason for the prohibition of garlic is the insatiable longing for garlic of the nuns.

“that the reason for this prohibition is the insatiable longing for garlic of the nuns (T.1421: 86c7-23; T.1425: 530b14-26; T.1428: 736c4-737b15; T.1435: 317a28-b24; T.1443: 997a8-c10).”

• cites T.1421Not matched

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• cites T.1425Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites T.1428Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Pusadichi jing (T.1581) was translated by Tanwuchen between 414 and 421.

“One is the Pusadichi jing 菩 薩 地 持 經 (T.1581) 23 , translated by Tanwuchen 24 曇 無 讖 between 414 and 421.”

• cites [23]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [24]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Fanwang jing was introduced in the ordination ceremony.

“It was also introduced in the ordination ceremony.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Pusashanjie jing (T.1582 and T.1583) was translated by Guṇavarman in 431.

“The other one is the Pusashanjie jing 菩 薩 善 戒 經 (T.1582 and T.1583 25 ), translated by Gu~avarman in 431.”

• cites [25]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In the 5th century, the so-called bodhisattva rules grew in popularity, intended to provide the Chinese Buddhist community with a guideline of Mahāyāna moral precepts.

“The 5th century saw a growing popularity of the so-called bodhisattva rules, intended to provide the Chinese Buddhist community with a guideline of Mahāyāna moral precepts.”

May combine two claims.

In the Mūlasarvāstivādavinaya, the penance for eating onions is three days and for leek one day, compared to seven days of isolation for garlic.

“Instead of an isolation of seven days, only three days are required in the case of having eaten onions, and only one day in the case of leek (T.1451: 230b20-21).”

• cites T.1451Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The nuns' consumption of garlic harms the economic interest of the benefactors.

“It harms the economic interest of the benefactors.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Fanwang jing (T.1484), the Brahmā's Net Sūtra, contains a set of fifty-eight precepts in the second of its two fascicles.

“which in the second of its two fascicles contains a set of fifty-eight precepts.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

It is forbidden to eat five kinds of bitter things (wu xin): garlic, three kinds of onions, and xing qu.

“Finally, it is also forbidden to eat five kinds of bitter things (T.1484: 1005b14-16) (wu xin 五 辛): da suan 大 蒜, garlic; three kinds of onions (ge cong 革 葱 30 , ci cong 慈 葱 31 and lan cong 蘭 葱 32 ); and xing qu 興 蕖, hi`gu.33”

• cites T.1484: 1005b14-16Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A brief description of Dao'an's guidelines is found in Huijiao's Gaoseng zhuan.

“Dao'an's text is no longer extant, but a brief description of his guidelines is found in Huijiao's Gaoseng zhuan 34 .”

• cites Huijiao, T.2059: 353b23-27Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

An offender of a bodhisattva pārājika offence loses all benefits in his or her actual existence and will be reborn as an infernal being, a hungry ghost or an animal.

“The offender looses all benefits in his or her actual existence, and will be reborn as an infernal being, a hungry ghost or an animal.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The first monk known to have drawn up a list of regulations for the clergy is the vinaya master Dao'an (312-385).

“The first monk known to have drawn up a list of regulations for the clergy, is the vinaya master Dao'an 道 安 (312-385).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Dao'an's regulations mainly concern rituals and ceremonies.

“His regulations mainly concern rituals and ceremonies.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Selling alcohol is a still worse offence.

“Still worse is the selling of alcohol.”

• cites T.1484Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Alcohol is forbidden because it is the trigger of many other offences.

“Alcohol is forbidden because it is the trigger of many other offences (T.1484: 1005b6-9).”

• cites T.1484: 1005b6-9Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Dao'an's text is no longer extant.

“Dao'an's text is no longer extant, but a brief description of his guidelines is found in Huijiao's Gaoseng zhuan 34 .”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The ten pārājika rules are followed by forty-eight light offences (qing gou zui), three of which concern the consumption of food.

“The ten pārājika rules are followed by forty-eight light offences (qing gou zui 輕 垢 罪), three of which concern the consumption of food.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

If the offender is a monk or a nun, he or she loses his or her clerical status.

“If the offender is a monk or a nun, he or she looses his or her clerical status (T.1484: 1005a18-22).”

• cites T.1484: 1005a18-22Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The offence of consuming alcohol, though called 'light', has severe consequences.

“Although the offence is called 'light', the consequences are severe.”

• cites T.1484: 1005b6-9Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Any offence of meat consumption will lead to immeasurable guilt.

“Any offence will lead to an immeasurable guilt.”

• cites T.1484Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

No motive is given for the prohibition of the five bitter things.

“No motive is given for this prohibition.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Touching with the hand something that contains alcohol, or handing it over to someone else, leads to five hundred rebirths as a being deprived of hands.

“Even if one only touches with the hand something that contains alcohol, or if one hands it over to someone else, it will lead to five hundred rebirths as a being deprived of hands.”

• cites T.1484: 1005b6-9Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Zhiyi (538-597) was a very influential monk, the founder of the monastery on the Tiantai mountain, highly respected by the rulers of both the Chen and Sui dynasties.

“A very influential monk was Zhiyi 智 顗 (538-597), the founder of the monastery on the Tiantai mountain, highly respected by the rulers of both the Chen and Sui dynasties (Yifa 2002, p. 20).”

• cites Yifa 2002, p. 20Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

None of these texts are extant.

“Again, none of these texts are extant.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Later, other vinaya masters wrote monastic codes.

“Later on, also other vinaya masters wrote monastic codes.”

May combine two claims.

Mallikā's action of offering wine to her husband and drinking with him to temper his bad mood saved the life of a servant and was defined by the Buddha as a good but impure action.

“she once offered wine to her husband and joined him in drinking in an attempt to temper his bad mood.Doing so, she saved the life of a servant who should have been brought to death after a decision taken by Prasenajit in anger.Mallikā's action is defined by the Buddha as a '有 漏 善' (Daoshi, T.2122: 971b21), a good, but impure action.”

• cites Daoshi, T.2122Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

There are two very different traditions of the Mahāparinirvāṇasūtra: one with many versions extant in Pāli, Sanskrit, Tibetan and Chinese, and one considered Mahāyāna, prominently known from its Chinese translations.

“There are two very different traditions, one with many versions extant in Pāli, Sanskrit, Tibetan and Chinese (see Waldschmidt 1944-1948, vol.29, pp.1-9), and one, considered to be a Mahāyāna tradition, prominently known from its Chinese translations.42”

• cites Waldschmidt 1944-1948, vol.29, pp.1-9Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Daoshi argues that Mallikā averted a grave offence by committing a small one, but her action should not be seen as a precedent, and every case has to be considered separately.

“Daoshi himself argues that Mallikā indeed averted a grave offence by committing a small one, but that her action should not be seen as a precedent.Every case has to be considered separately (Daoshi, T.2122: 972a1-5).”

• cites Daoshi, T.2122Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Both the Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇasūtra and the Laṅkāvatārasūtra are particularly important in Tathāgathagarbha thought.

“Both the Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvā~asūtra and the La`kāvatārasūtra are particularly important in Tathāgathagarbha thought, this is the assertion that all sentient beings possess the essence of Buddhahood, 44 an idea that softened 'the ontological and moral distinctions between humans and other beings' (Campany 1996, p. 390).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Daoxuan argues that when vinaya texts permit consumption of meat, 'meat' should be understood as the 'meat' of meditation, the food beyond comprehension, and therefore people who study Hīnayāna vinaya precepts should follow the same regulations as Chinese Mahāyāna disciples.

“When the vinaya texts permit the consumption of it, 'meat' should be understood as the 'meat' of meditation, the food beyond comprehension.Therefore people who study the Hīnayāna vinaya precepts should follow the same regulations as Chinese Mahāyāna disciples do (Daoxuan, T.1804: 118a19-21).”

• cites Daoxuan, T.1804Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Daoshi argues with the Yangjuemo jing that all bodies harbour innumerable small creatures, so even if one kills only one animal, one has murdered all these small living beings.

“To make it even worse, Daoshi argues with the Yangjuemo jing 鴦 掘 魔 經, A`gulimālika or A`gulimālīyasūtra, 54 that all bodies harbour innumerable small creatures.As a result, even if one kills only one animal, one has murdered all these small living beings.”

• cites Yangjuemo jingNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The seventh rule forbids samgha members to eat meat, fish or bitter things, or to drink alcohol, at any time and in any place, on pain of expulsion.

“Interesting in the context of our present research is the seventh rule that forbids samgha members to eat meat, fish or bitter things, 39 or to drink alcohol, at any time and in any place, on pain of expulsion.”

• cites Guanding, T.1934: 794a1-4Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The idea that all sentient beings possess the essence of Buddhahood softened the ontological and moral distinctions between humans and other beings.

“an idea that softened 'the ontological and moral distinctions between humans and other beings' (Campany 1996, p. 390).”

• cites Campany 1996, p. 390Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Daoxuan (596-667) is mainly known for his five commentaries on the Dharmaguptakavinaya.

“Finally, the most prominent monk for disciplinary matters is undoubtedly Daoxuan 道 宣 (596-667), who is mainly known for his five commentaries on the Dharmaguptakavinaya (see Wagner 1995, pp.56-61; Yifa 2002, pp.23-28).”

• cites Wagner 1995, pp.56-61Not checked — no full text of the source
• cites Yifa 2002, pp.23-28Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Daoxuan emphasises that Buddhists should refrain from eating meat or fish out of compassion for all sentient beings, as stated in the Mahāparinirvāṇasūtra and the Laṅkāvatārasūtra.

“He emphasises that Buddhists should refrain from eating meat or fish out of compassion for all sentient beings, as stated in the Mahāparinirvā~asūtra and the La`kāvatārasūtra.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Daoshi argues that the Buddha initially had no time to refine his teaching due to the amount of evil, but later forbade meat consumption.

“He argues that in the beginning, the Buddha was confronted with such an amount of evil that he had no time to refine his teaching.When later he was able to confront the problems in a more detailed way, it was clear that the consumption of meat had to be forbidden.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

With the Laṅkāvatārasūtra as a basis, Daoshi provides ten reasons not to eat meat.

“With the La`kāvatārasūtra as a basis, Daoshi then provides ten reasons not to eat meat (Daoshi, T.2122: 974c23-975a13; 975a15-27; 975a29-b8; 975b10-20; 975b23-c1; 975c6-11; 975c12-19; 975c22-29; 976a2-7; 976a9-15; cf.T.671: 561b17-c7; 561c13-26; 562a8-11, 13-16, 21-24; 562b3-14; 562b15-23; 562b25-c1; 562c2-9; 562c10-16; 562c21-25; 563a25-b3).”

• cites Daoshi, T.2122Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites T.671Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Daoshi gives more detailed information than Daoxuan.

“Daoshi gives us the more detailed information.”

May combine two claims.

As revealed by quotations in Daoshi's and Daoxuan's commentaries, the vinaya masters used both traditions, although the Mahāyāna one is more prominently present.

“As revealed by the quotations in Daoshi's and Daoxuan's commentaries, the vinaya masters used both traditions, although the Mahāyāna one is more prominently present.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Daoxuan argues that since there is no difference between those who eat meat and those who kill living beings, meat should be avoided at all times.

“Since there is in fact no difference between those people who eat meat and those who kill living beings, meat should be avoided at all time.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Daoxuan and Daoshi extensively refer to all kinds of texts in their argumentation.

“As we will see, Daoxuan and Daoshi extensively refer to all kinds of texts in their argumentation.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The Laṅkāvatārasūtra purports to be a discourse of Śākyamuni on the island of Laṅkā (Sri Lanka).

“The La`kāvatārasūtra purports to be a discourse of Śākyamuni on the island of La`kā (Sri Lanka).”

May combine two claims.

For the Mahāyāna tradition, the masters referred either to the translation made by Tanwuchen (?Dharmaksema) in the beginning of the 5th century (T.374), or to the compilation by Huiyan, Xie Lingyun and others, equally made in the first half of the 5th century (T.375).

“For this Mahāyāna tradition, the masters referred either to the translation made by Tanwuchen 曇 無 讖 (?Dharmaksema) in the beginning of the 5th century (T.374), or to the compilation by Huiyan 慧 嚴, Xie Lingyun 謝 靈 運 and others, equally made in the first half of the 5th century (T.375).43”

• cites T.374Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites T.375Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Mahāparinirvāṇasūtra tells about the last days of the Buddha's life.

“The first text tells us about the last days of the Buddha's life.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Daoshi points out that the Buddha initially allowed eating meat if one had never seen, nor heard, or did not suspect that the animal was killed especially for oneself.

“Daoshi points to the fact that the Buddha initially allowed to eat meat if one had never seen, nor heard, or if one did not suspect that the animal was killed especially for oneself.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

It is equally forbidden to eat after noon.

“It is equally forbidden to eat after noon.”

• cites Guanding, T.1934: 794a1-4Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Daoshi tells miracle stories to underline his conviction that drinking alcohol and eating meat could lead to rebirth in hell.

“In a next passage, Daoshi tells us several miracle stories to strongly underline his conviction that drinking alcohol and eating meat could very well lead to a rebirth in hell (Daoshi, T.2122: 976b6-11).”

• cites Daoshi, T.2122Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The court would order nation-wide screenings of the samgha to purge undesirable elements, and novices were subjected to examinations before ordination.

“Every so often, the court would order a nation-wide screening of the samgha in order to purge it from undesirable elements.One of the earliest examples of such a screening dates back to the reign of the Xiongnu ruler Shi Hu 石虎 (r.335-349) (Daoxuan, T.2103: 126b2-5.See Zürcher 1972 [1959], p. 259).As a preventive measure, novices were subjected to an examination, which they had to pass before being”

• cites Daoxuan, T.2103Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Zürcher 1972Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

In the end, Emperor Wu had to admit defeat to Zhizang's arguments and abandoned the idea of becoming a lay Rectifier of Monks.

“In the end, however, Emperor Wu had to admit defeat to Zhizang's arguments and subsequently abandoned the whole idea of becoming a lay Rectifier of Monks.”

May combine two claims.

In 493 Emperor Xiaowen issued an edict calling for the compilation of a clerical code (sengzhi) in 49 articles, one year after he had issued a decree restricting the annual number of ordinations.

“In 493 Emperor Xiaowen 孝 文 (r.471-500) issued an edict calling for the compilation of a clerical code (sengzhi 僧 制) in 49 articles, just one year after he had issued a decree restricting the annual number of ordinations (Wei Shou, Weishu 114: Vol. 8, 3039).”

• cites Wei Shou, Weishu 114Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Over time, the imperial court took an acute interest in uplifting the moral standard of the monastic community and imposed instructions of its own.

“Over time, the imperial court too took an acute interest in the uplifting of the moral standard of the monastic community and imposed some instructions of its own.”

May combine two claims.

Other preventive measures included registering monks and nuns with government bureaus and restricting the annual number of ordinations.

“Other preventive measures taken besides these examinations and screenings were the registering of monks and nuns with government bureaus and the restriction of the annual number of ordinations.64”

May combine two claims.

As Buddhism's popularity grew and more Chinese entered monasteries, the disruptive impact of Buddhist monasticism on Chinese society and economy became apparent, and many literati felt compelled to act.

“However, as its popularity grew and an increasing number of Chinese entered the monastery, the disruptive impact of Buddhist monasticism on the Chinese society and economy became apparent, and many literati felt compelled to act.62”

May combine two claims.

In 508, Emperor Xuanwu of the Northern Wei said in an edict that monks who commit murder or worse should be judged according to secular laws, and all other crimes according to the vinaya.

“In 508, Emperor Xuanwu 宣 武 (r.500-516) of the Northern Wei said in an edict: Since black and white (i.e.monk and layman) are two different things, the laws (fa 法) and vinaya (lü 律) are also different.[…] From this moment on, let all Buddhist monks who commit the crime of murder or worse be judged in accordance with”

• cites Wei Shou, Weishu 114Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

In 508 Emperor Wu appointed Fayun as abbot of the Guangzhai monastery and ordered him to compile a set of Rules for Monks (sengzhi) to become a norm for all who came after him.

“In 508 Emperor Wu appointed Fayun 法 雲 (467-529), who became Rectifier of Monks (sengzheng 僧 正) 71 in 525, as abbot of the Guangzhai 光 宅 monastery and ordered him to compile a set of Rules for Monks (sengzhi), which was to become a norm for all who came after him (Daoxuan, T.2060: 608a14-16).72”

• cites Daoxuan, T.2060Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

This system of official ordination was continued in subsequent dynasties.

“This system was continued in subsequent dynasties.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

When Buddhism first entered China around the beginning of the common era, it was mostly a religion of foreigners.

“When Buddhism first entered China around the beginning of our common era, it was mostly a religion of foreigners.”

May combine two claims.

In the vinayas, punishments are not severe; the focus is on convincing monks and nuns not to consume bad food, using mainly social and doctrinal arguments.

“Secondly, in the vinayas, the punishments are in fact not severe.The focus lays on convincing the monks and nuns not to consume bad food, by using mainly social, but also doctrinal arguments.”

May combine two claims.

In medicine, alcohol is to be avoided, and even if the Modejia says one can take medicines prepared with alcohol, it only allows it when any trace of alcohol as an ingredient has been removed.

“Also in medicine, alcohol is to be avoided, and even if a text such as the Modejia 摩 得 伽 says that one can take medicines prepared with alcohol, the text only allows it when any trace of alcohol as an ingredient has been removed.”

• cites ModejiaNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The system of official ordination, whereby monks received an official ordination certificate, is traditionally said to have been inaugurated in 747 by the Tang court.

“The system of official ordination, whereby monks who were allowed to be ordained received an official ordination certificate, is traditionally said to have been inaugurated”

May combine two claims.

In 509 Huishen presented a memorial to the throne lamenting that many impure elements circulate in the monastic community and proposing regulations and punishments for offenders; his proposals were accepted by the emperor.

“the fact that many impure elements circulate in the monastic community.He proposes a whole set of regulations and punishments for offenders in the hope of rectifying this situation.His proposals were accepted by the emperor, but it is not mentioned if a body of regulations specifically aimed at monks and nuns was added to the secular laws (Wei Shou, Weishu 114: Vol. 8, 3040-41).”

• cites Wei Shou, Weishu 114Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The vinayas are more pragmatic: as long as one does not offend lay benefactors, does not drink alcohol, does not kill, and does not spread a bad smell by eating garlic, there is no real objection to the consumption of any food.

“First of all, the vinayas are more pragmatic: as long as (1) one does not offend the lay benefactors, (2) one does not drink alcohol, (3) one does not kill, and (4) one does not spread a bad smell by eating garlic, there is no real objection to the con-”

May combine two claims.

When monks broke these rules, for example when they ate forbidden food, they were considered to be an offender and could expect to be punished according to the severity of the offence.

“When monks broke these rules, for example when they ate forbidden food, they were considered to be an offender and could expect to be punished according to the severity of the offence.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Emperor Taizong referred to Emperor Wu, who despite his lavish patronage of Buddhism came to a miserable end, to demonstrate how useless and misleading Buddhism really was.

“He even referred to Emperor Wu, who despite his lavish patronage of Buddhism came to a miserable end, to demonstrate how useless and misleading Buddhism really was.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Emperor Wu of Liang came to a miserable end despite his lavish patronage of Buddhism.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

This edict is preserved in Quan Tang wen 9: 9a-b.

“This edict is preserved in Quan Tang wen 9: 9a -b.”

• cites Quan Tang wen 9: 9a -bNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Their disciplinary rules were almost exclusively directed towards monks and nuns, and were very pragmatic in nature.

“Their disciplinary rules were almost exclusively directed towards monks and nuns, and were very pragmatic in nature.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The late 5th and 6th centuries saw a growing popularity of the Mahāyāna bodhisattva rules, which were basically a moral guideline intended not only for monks and nuns, but for lay followers as well.

“The late 5th and 6th centuries saw a growing popularity of the Mahāyāna bodhisattva rules, which were basically a moral guideline intended not only for monks and nuns, but for lay followers as well.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The text explicitly forbids monks to get involved in the business of merchants or farmers.

“The text explicitly forbids monks to get involved in the business of merchants or farmers.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

In the beginning of the 5th century, four full vinayas were translated into Chinese.

“In the beginning of the 5th century, four full vinayas were translated into Chinese.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The text tells monks not to predict the future in any way.

“It tells them not to predict the future in any way”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

The earliest vinaya texts had urged monks and nuns to always give a good impression to the lay community.

“The earliest vinaya texts had urged monks and nuns to always give a good impression to the lay community”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The text is of dubious origin.

“The text is of dubious origin.”

• cites Fukaura Seibun (1933, pp.133-134)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In his edict of 639, Emperor Taizong justified his overt interference in the affairs of the Buddhist monastic community by claiming that he, as the ruler of the nation, had been given the right, and even the duty, by Buddha to safeguard the Dharma and rectify the behaviour of the clergy in the 'final stage of decline of the Dharma (mofa)'.

“In his edict of 639, Emperor Taizong justified his overt interference in the affairs of the Buddhist monastic community by claiming that he, as the ruler of the nation, had been given the right, and even the duty, by Buddha to safeguard the Dharma and rectify the behaviour of the clergy in the 'final stage of decline of the Dharma (mofa)'.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

In the vinaya, the stress is mostly on prevention.

“In the vinaya, the stress is mostly on prevention.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

A monk should lead a very moderate life, not striving for any profit.

“Instead a monk should lead a very moderate life, not striving for any profit.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Monks should not intermingle in worldly affairs.

“Monks should not intermingle in worldly affairs”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Monks must refrain from seeking relations with rich and influential people.

“and must refrain from seeking relations with rich and influential people”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The text underlines the values of modesty and contentment, which are standard expressions used in vinaya.

“Not surprisingly, the text underlines the values of modesty 87 and contentment 88 , which are standard expressions used in vinaya 84”

• cites T.389: 1111b28 -c4Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites T.389: 1111c5 -10Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The text tells monks not to prepare medicines.

“and not to prepare medicines”

May combine two claims.

The refusal to eat or drink certain kinds of food basically goes back to the Indian vinayas, four of which have been translated into Chinese in the early 5th century.

“The refusal to eat or drink certain kinds of food basically goes back to the Indian vinayas, four of which have been translated into Chinese in the early 5th century.”

• cites [2]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Much later, in the beginning of the 8th century, the monk Yijing translated into Chinese large parts of the Mūlasarvāstivādavinaya, as well as other vinaya texts belonging to the same school.

“Much later, in the beginning of the 8th century, the monk Yijing 義 淨 translated into Chinese large parts of the Mūlasarvāstivādavinaya (Genbenshuoyiqieyou bu pinaiye 根 本 說 一 切 有 部 毘 奈 耶, T.1442-T.1451), as well as other vinaya texts belonging to the same school.”

• cites [3]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The secular authorities interfered with the monastic discipline on an increasing scale, until they finally even took it upon them to enforce these monastic rules by including them into the secular law codex.

“At the same time, we see how the secular authorities interfered with the monastic discipline on an increasing scale, until they finally even took it upon them to enforce these monastic rules by including them into the secular law codex.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The Daoseng ge was included in the civil Tang code issued in 637 by Emperor Taizong.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The Daoseng ge is a prime example of state interference in the internal affairs of the monastic community.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

As a plea for abstinence from alcohol and meat, this story does not stand on its own.

“As a plea for abstinence from alcohol and meat, this story does not stand on its own.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The 7th-century story of Xiangsheli clearly aims at dissuading people from eating meat.

“This 7th-century story clearly aims at dissuading people from eating meat.”

May combine two claims.

One of the most distinguishing features of a Chinese monk and nun is the refusal to eat or drink certain types of food: it is forbidden to drink alcohol, to eat meat or fish, or to consume five products that have a strong flavour.

“One of the most distinguishing features of a Chinese monk and nun is the refusal to eat or drink certain types of food: it is forbidden to drink alcohol, to eat meat or fish, or to consume five products that have a strong flavour.”

• Also stated in: § I. Introduction · plain

  “Indeed, one of the most distinguishing features of a Chinese monk and nun is the refusal to eat or drink certain types of food: it is forbidden to drink alcohol, to eat meat or fish, or to consume five products that have a strong flavour.”

• cites [1]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The story uses elements of awe and horror to convince the listeners to follow a proper Buddhist diet.

“The story uses elements of awe and horror to convince the listeners to follow a proper Buddhist diet.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The fact that nothing else is said about this mysterious monk, other than his miraculous feat, suggests that it was perhaps included in Daoxuan's biographical collection for just this purpose.

“The fact that nothing else is said about this mysterious monk, other than his miraculous feat, suggests that it was perhaps included in Daoxuan's biographical collection for just this purpose.”

May combine two claims.

The Buddha was very critical of Brahmanical animal sacrifice because of the cruelty involved and because it does not lead to a happy rebirth as hoped for at Brahmanical sacrificial rituals.

“The Buddha was indeed very critical of Brahmanical animal sacrifice, both because of the cruelty involved, and because it does not lead at all to a happy rebirth, as hoped for at Brahmanical sacrificial rituals (see Harvey 2000, p. 157).”

• cites Harvey 2000, p. 157 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In the meantime, the Dharmaguptakavinaya had been imposed as the only valid vinaya in China, a process strongly stimulated by the famous vinaya master Daoxuan (596-667).

“In the meantime, however, the Dharmaguptakavinaya had been imposed as the only valid vinaya in China, a process strongly stimulated by the famous vinaya master Daoxuan 道 宣 (596-667) (see Heirman 2002b, pp.419-423).”

• cites [4]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Heirman 2002bNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The vinayas emphasise both the decent social behaviour that monks should have and the avoidance of killing, a concept closely linked to samsāra, the cycle of rebirth.

“The vinayas thus emphasise both the decent social behaviour that monks should have, as well as the avoidance of killing, a concept that is closely linked to the idea of samsāra, the cycle of rebirth.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Monks and nuns should not express any preferences as to food.

“since a monk or a nun has to be modest, they should not express any preferences as to food”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Meat and fish are among the food products of human beings.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: A monk or a nun has to be modest.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Unlike monks and nuns, lay followers can choose what to eat, so it is more feasible for them to be vegetarians.

“Unlike monks and nuns, lay followers can choose what to eat, so it is more feasible for them to be vegetarians.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The explanation that the garlic prohibition is due to the nuns' longing could just as well be applied to every product nuns like to eat.

“This explanation is somehow strange, since it could just as well be applied to every product nuns like to eat.”

May combine two claims.

Monks and nuns are in a difficult position because a higher standard of behaviour is expected from them, and if they eat meat, lay people may question why they should avoid it.

“This can easily put monks and nuns in a difficult position, given the fact that a higher standard of behaviour is expected from them.If they eat meat, why should lay people avoid it?”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

According to Groner (1990a, pp.253-255, 278), the Fanwang jing must have started to play an important role in Chinese Buddhism within one or two centuries after its compilation.

“According to Groner (1990a, pp.253 -255, 278), it must have been within one or two centuries after its compilation.”

• cites Groner (1990a, pp.253 -255, 278)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Fanwang jing is the most influential text of the bodhisattva rules.

“The most influential text is the Fanwang jing 梵 網 經 (T.1484), the Brahmā's Net Sūtra”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

A vinayātikrama is a more serious offence than a duskrta.

“And thus a more serious offence than a duskrta.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The order of ordination (Hīnayāna first) is in accordance with the opinion expressed in texts such as the Bodhisattvabhūmi.

“This is in accordance with the opinion expressed in texts such as the Bodhisattvabhūmi”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Later on, these rules either stressed or supplemented the Indian rules.

“Later on, they either stressed or supplemented the Indian rules.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

When killing or eating living beings, one kills one's relatives and one's own former existence, since we are all based on earlier existences made of earth, water, fire and wind.

“When killing or eating them, one thus kills one's relatives, and one even kills one's own former existence, since we are all based on earlier existences made of earth, water, fire and wind.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: In the course of rebirths, all living beings are our relatives.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: We are all based on earlier existences made of earth, water, fire and wind.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

One cannot intentionally harm living beings without this bringing harm to oneself at some time.

“beings without this bringing harm to oneself at some time (Harvey 2000, pp.156-157).”

• cites Harvey 2000, pp.156-157 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The prohibition of meat consumption is essential to every bodhisattva whose duty is to commiserate with all living beings.

“This is essential to every bodhisattva whose duty it is to commiserate with all living beings.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The duty of a bodhisattva is to commiserate with all living beings.

May combine two claims.

There is a clear interaction between clergy members and lay followers, the rules being valid for both of them.

“with a clear interaction between clergy members and lay followers, the rules being valid for both of them.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Although the offence is called 'light', the consequences are severe.

“Although the offence is called 'light', the consequences are severe.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Before the translation of the complete Indian vinaya texts, these rules made up for the lack of vinaya rules.

“Before the translation of the complete Indian vinaya texts, these rules made up for the lack of vinaya rules.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Since alcohol induces people to commit all kinds of crimes, selling alcohol goes against the fundamentals of the bodhisattva who is supposed to help other beings.

“Since alcohol induces people to commit all kinds of crimes, selling alcohol goes against the fundamentals of the bodhisattva who is supposed to help other beings.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Alcohol induces people to commit all kinds of crimes.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The fundamentals of a bodhisattva include helping other beings.

May combine two claims.

This ascetic life is connected to fear, fear of what can detract from the path of the ideal model, and fear of the karmic consequences of bad deeds.

“This ascetic life is connected to fear, fear of what can detract of the path of the ideal model, and fear of the karmic consequences of bad deeds.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The basic rule in the scriptures is that one should not drink alcohol.

“The basic rule, however, is as described in the scriptures: one should not drink alcohol.”

May combine two claims.

The first concept (compassion) appeals to the duty of a bodhisattva, promotes exemplary conduct, and is a preventive argument; the second (karmic retribution) warns of inevitable punishment for meat consumption.

“The first concept appeals to the duty of a bodhisattva.It promotes an exemplary conduct and is thus rather a preventive argument.The second concept warns for the inevitable punishment that results from the consumption of meat.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Both masters clearly had an extensive library at their disposal, and make great efforts to prove their right with the help of written evidence.

“Both masters clearly had an extensive library at their disposal, and make great efforts to prove their right with the help of written evidence.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The main arguments in Daoshi's ten reasons are compassion, the cycle of rebirth, exemplary behaviour, and fear of severe consequences.

“The main arguments are all there: compassion, the cycle of rebirth, exemplary behaviour, and the fear of the severe consequences.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The main reason for the ban on alcohol in Buddhist texts is that it makes people go astray.

“The main reason for the ban on alcohol is that it makes people go astray.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Emperor Taizong reportedly accepted Xuanwan's proposal.

“The emperor reportedly accepted this proposal (Zhipan, T.2035: 364c2-6).”

• cites Zhipan, T.2035: 364c2-6Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Emperor Wu followed a double strategy: on the secular level he wanted to subject monks to a set of secular laws inspired by Buddhist disciplinary rules, while on a religious level he wanted to portray himself as spiritual head of the Buddhist church as a Bodhisattva-king.

“To achieve this, he followed a double strategy: on the secular level he wanted to subject the monks to a set of secular laws, inspired by the Buddhist disciplinary rules, while on a religious level he wanted to portray himself as spiritual head of the Buddhist church in the figure of a Bodhisattva-king.70”