Chloride binding in concrete: recent investigations and recognised knowledge gaps: RILEM Robert L’Hermite Medal Paper 2021
Open accessAbstract
A theoretical understanding of chloride binding is urgently needed if we are to use the new low-CO 2 composite cements in reinforced concrete structures exposed to chloride-loaded environments. The empirical models and “deemed-to-satisfy” rules currently in use will not help in the face of the wide variety of new SCMs now being proposed. Engineers need generic chloride ingress models that can handle the variations in binder chemistry and exposure conditions. This paper reviews a selection of recent investigations by a team of NTNU researchers and international collaborators on various Portland composite cements using a combination of equilibrium chloride-binding experiments and thermodynamic modelling. One of our main findings is that “leaching” simulated by varying the pH and the calcium concentration has a dominant effect on chloride binding. However, challenges regarding the quantification and characterization of the chloride binding phases have yet to be overcome. To advance in this field we need additional crucial thermodynamic data for chloride-binding hydrates formed by low-CO 2 cements containing SCMs, and we need to overcome some experimental challenges. A major break-through would come from understanding the interactions between chlorides and C(-A)-S-H. Part of the answer might be found at the atomic level. Finally, mechanistic numerical models are needed to upscale the findings from chloride binding to chloride ingress models. We conclude by showing the significance of such theoretical work on chloride binding for engineers tasked with the construction and maintenance of the reinforced concrete structures that are so vital a part of modern infrastructure.
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Chloride binding in blended binder systems involves both chemical reactions and physical sorption, and these mechanisms should be considered with transport properties.
“Recent studies have emphasized that chloride binding in blended binder systems involves both chemical reactions and physical sorption, and that these mechanisms should be considered with transport properties [7, 20-24].”
From Mechanical Properties and Chloride Penetration Resistance of Low-Carbon Concrete with Blended Binder Systems (2026) · cites this paper as [22]
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- Authors
- De Weerdt, K.
- ORCID
- De Weerdt, Klaartje
- Venue
- Materials and Structures
- Published
- 2021-11-11
- Volume
- 54
- Issue
- 6
- ISSN
- 0025-5432 (ISSN-L)
- 1359-5997
- 1871-6873
- OpenAlex
- W3211715537
- Cited by
- 57
- References
- 72
- Citations by year
- 2026: 22 · 2025: 9 · 2024: 14 · 2023: 8 · 2022: 4
- FWCI
- 3.36
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Locations
- Materials and Structures (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- NORA - Norwegian Open Research Archives (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- NTNU Norwegian University of Science and Technology
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Civil and Structural Engineering › Concrete Corrosion and Durability
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Civil and Structural Engineering › Concrete and Cement Materials Research
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Civil and Structural Engineering › Concrete Properties and Behavior
- Keywords
- chloride binding, chloride penetration, low-carbon cement, supplementary cementitious materials, Portland composite cement, thermodynamic modeling, leaching, calcium concentration, pH effect, C-A-S-H, reinforced concrete durability
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