Rulers of the Air: Demonic Bodies and the Making of the Ancient Christian Cosmos

Ideas regarding demonic bodies informed early Christian rites such as exorcism, the Eucharist, ritual contemplation, and baptism.

“I point out that ideas regarding demonic bodies informed early Christian rites such as exorcism, the Eucharist, ritual contemplation, and baptism.”

Demons often possessed a form of embodiment, even if such corporeality appears rather ephemeral.

“demons did often possess a form of “embodiment,” even if such corporeality appears rather ephemeral.”

Writings from Clement of Alexandria and Tertullian of Carthage depict the demonic body in ways that stress its corpulence.

“Writings from Clement of Alexandria and Tertullian of Carthage, however, depict the demonic body in ways that stress its corpulence.”

Early Christians in the first three centuries of the Common Era held a wide variety of views on the demonic body.

“Through four case studies on Christian demonologies in the first three centuries of the Common Era, I demonstrate that early Christians held to a wide variety of views on the demonic body.”

• Also stated in: § Abstract · boosted

  “even a brief survey of early Christian literature substantiates Origen's observation: early Christians held variant viewpoints on the substance of the demonic body.”

• Also stated in: § Abstract · boosted

  “Extant early Christian literature, therefore, confirms Origen's observation regarding Christian disagreement over the demonic body.”

Clement contrasts the demons' corpulence with his construal of the ideal Christian body: chaste, thin, and constantly engaged in contemplative practices that "strip away" the material body.

“Clement contrasts the demons’ corpulence with his construal of the ideal Christian body: chaste, thin, and constantly engaged in contemplative practices that “strip away” the material body.”

Tertullian's On the Shows warns Christians of myriad activities contaminated by demons, which threaten to pollute the body and undo the salvific work of Christian baptism.

“The lingering threat of the abject demon surfaces mostly clearly in Tertullian’s On the Shows, a treatise that warns Christians of the myriad activities contaminated by demons, which therefore threaten to pollute the body and undo the salvific work of Christian baptism.”

Tertullian argues that the only way to ensure the endurance of one's Christian corporeality is by maintaining Christian habits and eschewing all activities infected by Roman demonolatry.

“The only way to ensure the endurance of one’s Christian corporeality, Tertullian argues, is by maintaining Christian habits and eschewing all activities infected by Roman demonolatry.”

A consistent feature of early Christian demonologies is the way in which demonic bodies are enmeshed with their human counterparts.

“Yet a consistent feature of early Christian demonologies is the way in which demonic bodies are enmeshed with their human counterparts.”

The Gospel of Mark portrays demons in a fashion that dovetails with contemporaneous Second Temple Jewish demonologies, particularly those found in Enochic literature.

“Ultimately, I conclude that the Gospel of Mark portrays demons in a fashion that dovetails with contemporaneous Second Temple Jewish demonologies, particularly those found in Enochic literature.”

Clement of Alexandria portrays the demonic body as one that has become grotesquely "fattened" due to its excess consumption of sacrificial fumes.

“Clement of Alexandria, for example, portrays the demonic body as one that has become grotesquely “fattened” due to its excess consumption of sacrificial fumes.”

Tertullian's construction of humanity's dual flesh-and-spirit body in On the Soul emphasizes the pervasive attachment of demonic spirits to the human soul.

“Tertullian’s construction of humanity’s dual flesh-and-spirit body in On the Soul, wherein he emphasizes the pervasive attachment of demonic spirits to the human soul.”

The spirits of the giants exit their drowned fleshly bodies and live on as "evil spirits."

“The spirits of the giants, however, exit their drowned fleshly bodies and live on as “evil spirits”:”

• cites [99] 99. Betz, Hans Dieter. The Greek Magical Papyri in Translation. 2 nd ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992.Not matched

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According to the Book of the Watchers, the evil spirits will continue their adversarial relationship with humanity until the end of the present age.

“According to the Book of the Watchers, moreover, the evil spirits will continue their adversarial relationship with humanity until the end of the present age:”

• cites [104] 104. Böcher, Otto. Christus Exorcista. Stuttgart: Kolhammer, 1972.Not matched

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The interchangeable use of 'unclean spirit' and 'demon' is unparalleled in the Hebrew Bible.

“Such terminological usage is unparalleled in the Hebrew Bible”

Both Enochic demonologies and the Gospel of Mark use unclean spirit and demon interchangeably in reference to evil spiritual beings.

“First, both Enochic demonologies and the Gospel of Mark use”

In the Jubilees narrative, God spared the lives of 10% of the demons only after an intercession on their behalf by Mastema.

“Recall that in the Jubilees narrative, God spared the lives of 10% of the demons only after an intercession on their behalf by Mastema.”

• cites Jubilees 10:4-5Not matched

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Taken together, these four exorcism narratives encompass the most frequent type of miracle attributed to Jesus by the Second Gospel.

“Taken together, these four exorcism narratives encompass the most frequent type of miracle attributed to Jesus by the Second Gospel.”

• cites Twelftree, Jesus the Exorcist, 3Not matched

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Second Temple Jewish and early Christian writers view demons as wholly evil combatants in an ongoing cosmic battle between good and malevolent forces, rather than as members of a relatively unified, if capricious, divine order typical of Greco-Roman traditions.

“Rather than seeing demons as members of a relatively unified, if capricious, divine order (as would be typical of Greco-Roman traditions), Second Temple Jewish and early Christian writers view demons as wholly evil combatants in an ongoing cosmic battle between good and malevolent forces.”

The idea of demonic usurpation or possession of the human body surfaces frequently in Second Temple Jewish literature and the Gospels, but rarely in Greco-Roman texts.

“Second, as noted previously, the idea of demonic usurpation or possession of the human body surfaces frequently in Second Temple Jewish literature and the Gospels, but rarely in Greco-Roman texts.”

This reprieve will only persist until the apocalypse, when the fallen angels and evil spirits will face divine judgment.

“This reprieve, however, will only persist until the apocalypse, when the fallen angels and evil spirits will face divine judgment.”

• cites 1 Enoch 16Not matched

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The exorcism of an unclean spirit from a demoniac in Capernaum is the first public activity performed by Jesus in Mark.

“Mark signals exorcism's importance by its priority: the exorcism of an unclean spirit from a demoniac in Capernaum is the first public activity performed by Jesus.”

• cites Mark 1:21-28Not matched

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Within both Enochic traditions and the Gospel of Mark demons are conceptualized as part of an apocalyptic evil front, under the leadership of a chief demon (e.g., Satan, Beelzebul, Mastema), allied against the forces of good.

“Third, within both Enochic traditions and the Gospel of Mark demons are conceptualized as part of an apocalyptic evil front, under the leadership of a chief demon (e.g., Satan, Beelzebul, Mastema), allied against the forces of good.”

In Mark's final exorcism narrative, the healing of a boy with a mute spirit, the demoniac demonstrates self-destructive behavior through attempted self-immolations and drownings.

“In a similar fashion to the Gerasene demoniac, therefore, the demoniac demonstrates self-destructive behavior, in this case through attempted self-immolations and drownings.”

Second Temple Jewish literature consistently depicts the giants as enormous, strong, and violent.

“Second Temple Jewish literature consistently depicts the giants as enormous, strong, and violent.”

Christians did not have a monopoly on shorter, less elaborate exorcistic adjurations.

“Christians did not have a monopoly on shorter, less elaborate exorcistic adjurations.”

Some of the earliest commentaries on Christian exorcistic practice highlight the specific power of Christians to perform exorcisms, over and against exorcistic competitors.

“Some of the earliest commentaries on Christian exorcistic practice highlight the specific power of Christians to perform exorcisms, over and against exorcistic competitors.”

In Smyrnaeans, Ignatius accentuates the affirmation of Jesus' corporeality by explicitly claiming that these events implicate Jesus' possession of flesh.

“In Smyrnaeans, Ignatius accentuates the affirmation of Jesus' corporeality by explicitly claiming that these events implicate Jesus' possession of flesh.”

• cites Smyrn.3.3Not matched

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The Acts of John positions the true appearance of Jesus outside his physical form.

“In ways analogous to the Gospel of Mary, the apocryphal Acts of John positions the true appearance of Jesus outside his physical form.”

• cites Acts of JohnNot matched

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In the Acts of John, John explains that Jesus' corporeal indeterminacy was a constant feature of the disciples' interaction with him.

“John explains that Jesus' corporeal indeterminacy was a constant feature of the disciples' interaction with him:”

• cites Acts of JohnNot matched

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Several descriptions of resurrection appearances in Gnostic writings portray Jesus' corporeality in ambivalently material terms.

“There we find several descriptions of resurrection appearances that portray Jesus' corporeality in ambivalently material terms.”

The narrator of the Acts of John interprets Jesus' multiplicity as indicative not of Jesus' true nature, but of the mundane materiality through which he appeared to his followers.

“Interestingly, the narrator of the Acts of John interprets Jesus' multiplicity as indicative not of Jesus' true nature, but of the mundane materiality through which he appeared to his followers.”

• cites Acts of JohnNot matched

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The texts surveyed typically present claims regarding Jesus' (lack of) flesh in tandem with related, positive statements about the nature of Jesus' resurrected body-including its potency, transient adaptability, and ability to merge with the divine.

“What is more, the texts surveyed here typically present claims regarding Jesus' (lack of) flesh in tandem with related, positive statements about the nature of Jesus' resurrected bodyincluding its potency, transient adaptability, and ability to merge with the divine.”

Other resurrection traditions, such as those in the Fourth Gospel and Justin Martyr, ostensibly affirm Jesus' corporeal solidity without clarifying the actual substance that constituted Jesus' body.

“Other resurrection traditions, such as those found in the Fourth Gospel and Justin Martyr, ostensibly affirm Jesus' corporeal solidity without clarifying the actual substance that constituted Jesus' body.”

• cites Fourth GospelNot matched

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• cites Justin MartyrNot matched

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The term 'Docetism' appears only in secondary, heresiological contexts.

“First, the term appears only in secondary, heresiological contexts.”

Ignatius' letters show that the body of the risen Jesus possessed the same human corporeality as it did before his death.

“Even a cursory reading of Ignatius' letters lays bare where he stands within this broader debate: the body of the risen Jesus possessed the same human corporeality as it did before his death.”

• cites Ignatius' lettersNot matched

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Ignatius' emphasis on enumerating the precise physiological substance of Jesus' body is distinctive, finding parallel only in the Epistula Apostolorum and the Gospel of Luke.

“Ignatius' emphasis on enumerating the precise physiological substance of Jesus' 434 Smyrn.3.3.435 Ibid, 3.2.436 Ibid, 3.1.body is distinctive, finding parallel only in the Epistula Apostolorum and the Gospel of Luke (see above).”

• cites Epistula ApostolorumNot matched

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• cites Gospel of LukeNot matched

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In the Gospel of Peter, the risen Jesus is represented as having a head that reached above the skies, even higher than the divine beings lending him assistance.

“The heads of the two reached up to the sky, but the head of the one they were leading went up above the skies.”

• cites Gospel of Peter 35-40Not matched

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In the Acts of John, Jesus tells John that he did not in fact suffer during the crucifixion.

“As part of this revelation, Jesus tells John that he did not in fact suffer during the crucifixion.”

• cites Acts of JohnNot matched

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Both Ignatius and the CAP cite the nature of the demonic as part of their articulation of proper embodiment.

“What is more, both Ignatius and the CAP cite the nature of the demonic as part of their articulation of proper embodiment.”

The prohibition against image-worship is buttressed by attendant bans on making sacrifices to other gods, adopting foreign cultic customs, mentioning the names of foreign gods, and cultic exogamy.

“The prohibition against image- worship is buttressed by attendant bans on making sacrifices to other gods, 564 adopting foreign cultic customs, 565 mentioning the names of foreign gods, 566 and cultic exogamy. 567”

• cites Exod 22:19, 34:16Not matched

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• cites Lev 18:21, 20:2-5Not matched

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• cites Exod 23:13Not matched

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The CAP critiques Christians who 'hold on to the name of a dead man' (i.e. the fleshly, crucified Jesus).

“Specifically, the CAP critiques Christians who”

• cites Ibid, 60Not matched

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Tertullian diverges from Aristotle in arguing that both the fleshly and psychic parts of the human body come from the male partner.

“Tertullian diverges from Aristotle, nonetheless, in arguing that both the fleshly and psychic parts of the human body come from the male partner.”

In tandem with this prohibition against idols, the Hebrew Bible contains several censures of foreign deities that, when translated into Greek as part of the Septuagint, came to be known as 'demons.'

“In tandem with this prohibition against idols, the Hebrew Bible contains several censures of foreign deities that, when translated into Greek as part of the Septuagint, came to be known as”

Through the entanglement of demonology and ritual praxis, the bodies of demons played a significant role in constructing, constraining, and empowering the bodily performance of Christian corporeal ideals.

“Through the entanglement of demonology and ritual praxis, the bodies of demons played a significant role in constructing, constraining, and empowering the bodily performance of Christian corporeal ideals.”

The interimplication of demonic and human bodies underscores the thoroughgoing entanglement of the Christian body with nonhuman entities in the ancient cosmos.

“The interimplication of demonic and human bodies, seen in particular through both demonological and ritual discourses, underscores the thoroughgoing entanglement of the Christian body with nonhuman entities in the ancient cosmos.”

Early Christian inconsistencies over demonic corporeality simultaneously reflect and reproduce attendant differences concerning Christian (human) incarnation.

“I argue that early Christian inconsistencies over demonic corporeality simultaneously reflect and reproduce attendant differences concerning Christian (human) incarnation.”

Differences in demonic corporeality run parallel to divergences in Christian characterizations of the ideal Christian body.

“Despite these demonological discrepancies, in each case differences in demonic corporeality run parallel to divergences in Christian characterizations of the ideal Christian body.”

Ancient modes of embodiment included a much more expansive range of entities than those indexed by the contemporary English use of "body," which is often restricted to tangible bodies accessible to human sight and touch.

“ancient modes of embodiment included a much more expansive range of entities than those frequently indexed by the contemporary English use of “body” (which is often restricted to the tangible bodies accessible to human sight and touch).”

The body and its concomitant materiality or gender/sexuality are not natural attributes, but culturally contingent products of ideological constructions.

“In this line of inquiry, the body and its concomitant materiality or gender/sexuality are not natural attributes, but culturally contingent products of ideological constructions.”

• cites Judith Butler, Gender TroubleNot matched

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• cites Judith Butler, Bodies That MatterNot matched

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The hybridity of the demonic body reflects broader multiplicities in Christian modes of corporeality.

“The hybridity of the demonic body, then, reflects broader multiplicities in Christian modes of corporeality.”

The bodies of demons served as fruitful sites of negotiation and invention for Christians as they fashioned the contours of human corporeality within and among other cosmic forces.

“This suggests that the bodies of demons served as fruitful sites of negotiation and invention for Christians as they fashioned the contours of human corporeality within and among other cosmic forces.”

Semi-divine beings such as demons, angels, or the human mind/soul were typically understood to possess some form of attenuated corporeality.

“semi-divine beings, such as demons, angels, or the human mind/soul, were typically understood to possess some form of attenuated corporeality.”

• cites [75] 75. ___. "The Demonology of the Dead Sea Scrolls." In The Dead Sea Scrolls after Fifty Years, edited by P.W. Flint and J.C. VanderKam, 2:331-54. Leiden: Brill, 1999.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

When early Christians differed on the nature of appropriate Christian corporeality, these differences surfaced in apposite portrayals of the demonic body.

“When early Christians differed on the nature of appropriate Christian corporeality, therefore, these differences surfaced in apposite portrayals of the demonic body.”

Demonic bodies came to play a central role in the ritualization of Christian corporeality as an embodied repudiation of its demonic assailants.

“In such a way, demonic bodies came to play a central role in the ritualization of Christian corporeality as an embodied repudiation of its demonic assailants.”

Christian descriptions of demonic corporeality reflect shifts and differences in early Christian anthropology, insofar as attributes characterizing proper human embodiment are portrayed as inverted or deficient in Christian representations of the demonic body.

“First, Christian descriptions of demonic corporeality reflect shifts and differences in early Christian anthropology, insofar as the attributes that characterize Christian constructions of proper human embodiment are portrayed as inverted or deficient in Christian representations of the demonic body.”

The Gospel of Mark's portrayal of demons has antecedents in ancient Jewish understandings of demons as the residual "spirits" of the gigantic offspring of fallen angels and mortal women.

“This portrayal has antecedents in ancient Jewish understandings of demons as the residual “spirits” of the gigantic offspring of fallen angels and mortal women.”

The demonic body informs and undergirds Clement's ritual program by providing a negative stereotype of those bodily attributes that Clement urges his readers to eschew.

“The demonic body, then, informs and undergirds Clement’s ritual program by providing a negative stereotype of those bodily attributes that Clement urges his readers to eschew.”

Early Christian exorcism narratives reflect broader Christian corporeal paradigms that construe the human body as particularly prone to possession.

“I argue that early Christian exorcism narratives reflect broader Christian corporeal paradigms that construe the human body as particularly prone to possession.”

The giants' unruly behavior seemingly results from their motley composition, as their mortal flesh did not properly mesh with their angelic spirit.

“The giants’ unruly behavior seemingly results from their motley composition, as their mortal flesh did not properly mesh with their angelic spirit.”

• cites [93] 93. Bäumker, Clemens. Das Problem der Materie in der griechischen Philosophie: eine historisch- kritische Untersuchung. Münster: Aschendorff, 1890.Not matched

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• cites [94] 94. Beatrice, Pier Franco. "The "Gospel According to the Hebrews" in the Apostolic Fathers." Novum Testamentum 48.2 (2006): 147-195 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The demonic body functions within Tertullian's writings as a kind of abject entity-one that is foreclosed as part of the ritualized construction of the Christian body and yet loiters as a threatening epitome of those elements unbecoming of Christian corporeality.

“I argue that the demonic body functions within Tertullian’s writings as a kind of abject entityone that is foreclosed as part of the ritualized construction of the Christian body and yet loiters as a threatening epitome of those elements unbecoming of Christian corporeality.”

Early Christian demonological differences "materialized" in the diverse range of ritual practices they "inspired" or informed.

“Thus, early Christian demonological differences “materialized” in the diverse range of ritual practices they “inspired” or informed.”

Christian descriptions of demonic corporeality reflect shifts and differences in early Christian anthropology insofar as they inversely correlate to articulations of the ideal human body.

“Christian descriptions of demonic corporeality reflect shifts and differences in early Christian anthropology insofar as they inversely correlate to articulations of the ideal human body.”

The scale of embodiment in ancient Greco-Roman cultural traditions is often much more expansive, elastic, and mutable than that of contemporary corporeal ideologies.

“the scale of embodiment in ancient Greco-Roman cultural traditions is often much more expansive, elastic, and mutable than that of contemporary corporeal ideologies.”

Ancient terminology for the "body" in Greco-Roman antiquity refers to a much wider range of corporeal entities than does its modern English counterpart.

“ancient terminology for the “body” in Greco-Roman antiquity refers to a much wider range of corporeal entities than does its modern English counterpart.”

The Septuagint's identification of the Nephilim as giants suggests that from an early period Jewish exegetes interpreted Gen 6 as a reference to the myth of the "Watchers," a legend found in several Second Temple texts.

“This identification suggests that from an early period Jewish exegetes interpreted Gen 6 as a reference to the myth of the “Watchers,” a legend found in several Second Temple texts that narrates the events immediately preceding the great flood of Genesis.”

The giants' spirits are condemned to perpetual misplacement: despite being "spiritual beings," they must continue to inhabit the earth, though without the "earthly" body necessary to carry out their desired activities.

“One drawback of this protracted existence, however, is that the giants’ spirits are condemned to perpetual misplacement -despite being “spiritual beings,” they must continue to inhabit the earth, though without the “earthly” body necessary to carry out their desired activities.”

• cites [102] 102. Blair, Judit M. De-demonising the Old Testament. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2009. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Second Temple Jewish writers exhibit an "apocalyptic" demonology: an understanding of demons as refracted through Second Temple Jewish apocalyptic expectation.

“Second Temple Jewish writers exhibit an “apocalyptic” demonology: an understanding of demons as refracted through Second Temple Jewish apocalyptic expectation.”

• cites [86] 86. Bammel, C.P. Hammond. "Ignatian Problems." Journal of Theological Studies n.s. 33 (1982): 62-97. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

In the Genesis Apocryphon, Abram cures Pharaoh of an evil spirit through prayer and the laying on of hands.

“In the Genesis Apocryphon (1QapGen), Abram cures Pharaoh of an”

• cites 1QapGen 20:28-29Not matched

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Jubilees indicates that after the flood, the giants' spirits harassed humanity as demonic beings.

“Jubilees later indicates that after the flood, the giants' spirits harassed humanity as”

• cites Jubilees 10:1-2Not matched

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Besides 1 Enoch, the Book of Jubilees is the most important source for the myth of the Watchers and giants.

“Besides 1 Enoch, the Book of Jubilees is the most important source for the myth of the Watchers and giants.”

Josephus' Jewish War identifies demons as the spirits of wicked humans.

“For an exception, see Josephus' Jewish War, where demons are identified as the spirits of wicked humans (7.185)”

• cites Jewish War 7.185Not matched

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The Damascus Document contains a warning that the giants, despite their great height and bodies, perished and thereafter became as they have never been.

“The Damascus Document of the Dead Sea Scrolls contains a similar warning to its readers, reminding them that the giants,”

• cites 4Q266 2.17-21Not matched

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The widespread popularity of the Watchers tradition forms an important backdrop for considering the demonologies of Second Temple Judaism and the early Jesus movement.

“The widespread popularity of the Watchers tradition, then, forms an important backdrop for our consideration of the demonologies of Second Temple Judaism and the early Jesus movement.”

The broad use of the Watchers mythology among Jewish readers in this period is attested by its widespread distribution, translation from Aramaic into Greek texts, and quotations or allusions in Second Temple Jewish and early Christian writings.

“The broad use of the Watchers mythology among Jewish readers in this period is attested in its widespread distribution, translation from Aramaic into Greek texts, and quotations of or allusions to the myth in an array of Second Temple Jewish and early Christian writings.”

Jubilees witnesses important developments in the identification of the evil spirits of the giants with demons.

“as well as its witness to important developments in the identification of the evil spirits of the giants with”

• cites [110] 110. Bourdieu, Pierre. The Logic of Practice. Translated by Richard Nice. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1990.Not matched

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Second Temple Jewish literature includes narratives of demons inhabiting or afflicting human bodies in ways similar to the early Christian gospels.

“Second Temple Jewish literature includes narratives of demons inhabiting or afflicting human bodies in ways similar to the early Christian gospels.127”

• cites [127] 127. Buell, Denise Kimber. "Hauntology Meets Posthumanism: Some Payoffs for Biblical Studies." In The Bible and Posthumanism, edited by Jennifer L. Koosed, 29-56. Atlanta: SBL Press, 2014.Not matched

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The preceding survey demonstrates that the story of the fallen angels and their gigantic offspring appeared in a wide variety of texts, both in mainstream Jewish circles and factional offshoots.

“offspring appeared in a wide variety of texts, both in”

Jubilees is the earliest extant text to identify the spirits of the giants as evil spirits, demons, and impure spirits, the three terms used for demonic entities in the literature of the early Jesus movement.

“Jubilees marks an important point in the development of ancient Jewish demonology, as it is the earliest extant text to identify the spirits of the giants as”

The popularity of the Watchers story influenced the textual history of Gen 6, with some biblical manuscripts substituting angels for the more prevalent sons of God phraseology.

“The popularity of the story was such that it influenced the textual history of Gen 6; as noted by Annette Reed, some biblical manuscripts include versions of the story where scribes substituted”

• cites Reed, Fallen Angels, 117Not matched

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The Testament of Solomon speaks to the ongoing association of demons with the spirits of the giants in both Second Temple Judaism and the early Jesus movement.

“The Testament of Solomon, then, speaks to the ongoing association of demons with the spirits of the giants in both the writings of Second Temple Judaism and the early Jesus movement.125”

• cites [125] 125. ___. "The Rise and Function of the Holy Man in Late Antiquity." Journal of Roman Studies 61 (1971): 80-101.Not matched

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The connection between the giants of Enochic mythology and evil demons persists in Jewish traditions of the later Second Temple period.

“The connection between the giants of Enochic mythology and evil demons persists in Jewish traditions of the later Second Temple period.”

Not all Second Temple authors drew upon the Watchers tradition in formulating their demonology.

“It should be noted that not all Second Temple authors drew upon the Watchers tradition in formulating their demonology.”

• cites Josephus' Jewish WarNot matched

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• cites Giants 6Not matched

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The story of the fallen Watchers and the spirits of their monstrous offspring appeared in a wide array of Second Temple Jewish writings, including the Similitudes of Enoch, the Dream Visions of Enoch, the Epistle of Enoch, Jubilees, the Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs, 2 Baruch, Tobit, and the Genesis Apocryphon.

“The story of the fallen Watchers and the spirits of their monstrous offspring appeared in a wide array of Second Temple Jewish writings, 106 including the Similitudes of Enoch (1 En. 37-71), the Dream Visions of Enoch (1 En. 83-90), 107 the Epistle of Enoch (1 En. 91-107), 108 105 Stuckenbruck,”

• cites Stuckenbruck, "Giant Mythology," 336Not matched

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Humanity's affliction by such spirits is a haunting reminder that the genesis, unruly behavior, and disembodiment of the demonic ultimately stem from the misdeeds of humanity's primordial ancestors.

“Humanity’s affliction by such spirits, then, is a haunting reminder that the genesis, unruly behavior, and disembodiment of the demonic ultimately stem from the misdeeds of humanity’s primordial ancestors.”

The giants of Enochic literature appear in several texts as cautionary tales, used to remind readers of the dangers of disobeying God's will.

“The giants of Enochic literature appear in several texts as cautionary tales, used to remind readers of the dangers involved in disobeying God's will.”

• cites Wisdom of Solomon 14:6Not matched

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• cites 3 Baruch 4:10Not matched

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• cites 3 Maccabees 2:4-8Not matched

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The story of the fallen Watchers and their gigantic offspring served as the primary etiology for the existence of evil spirits.

“As suggested by this plurality of witnesses, the story of the fallen Watchers and their gigantic offspring served as the primary etiology for the existence of evil spirits.”

4QExorcism (4Q560) contains a formula for addressing demons who enter the body.

“The most explicit description of exorcism appears in 4QExorcism (4Q560), which contains a formula for addressing demons who enter the body:”

• cites 4Q560 fr. 1, I 2-5Not matched

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The Community Rule declares that the end-times will include the ripping out of evil spirits from the innermost parts of the human body, ostensibly referring to an exorcistic process.

“The Community Rule (1QS) declares that the end-times will include the”

• cites 1QS IV 18-22Not matched

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The Gospel of Mark displays demonological characteristics that align closely with assumptions in other Second Temple Jewish texts, particularly those associated with Enoch and the fallen angels.

“Rather, my contention here is that the Gospel of Mark displays certain demonological characteristics that align closely with assumptions in other Second Temple Jewish texts, particularly those associated with Enoch and the fallen angels.”

There is evidence internal to the Gospel of Mark that suggests points of contact with Enochic demonologies.

“There is evidence internal to the Second Gospel that suggests points of contact with Enochic demonologies.157”

• cites [157] 157. Cohick, Lynn H. "Virginity Unveiled: Tertullian's Veiling of Virgins and Historical Women in the First Three Centuries A.D." Andrew University Seminary Studies 45.1 (2007): 19-34.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The association between demons and spirits of the bastards in the Songs of the Maskil suggests that the passage has in view the Enochic story of the bastard giants who were offspring of fallen angels and mortal women and now live on as evil spirits or demons.

“The association made here between demons and”

• cites [138] 138. ___, trans. Origen: On First Principles. Gloucester, MA: Peter Smith, 1973.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Fleeting references to the Watchers tradition in Jude, 1 Peter, and 2 Peter suggest that familiarity with Watchers traditions may be assumed among many early Christians.

“Each of these three epistles provides only a brief mention of the Watchers tradition, and yet, as Eric Mason points out, such fleeting references suggest that”

• cites Eric F. Mason, "Watchers Traditions in the Catholic Epistles," 79Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The terminology of 'unclean spirit' and 'demon' appears unique to late Second Temple Judaism and early Christian writings.

“thus, this terminology appears unique to late Second Temple Judaism and early Christian writings.”

The area where 1 Enoch's influence is most evident is the appearance of the Watchers fallen angel tradition in the writings of the Jesus movement and early Christianity, particularly as part of interpretations of Genesis 6.

“The area where 1 Enoch's”

There was nothing resembling a closed and exclusive canon within Second Temple Judaism at the time of the early Jesus movement.

“However, as has become apparent by the preceding overview, there was nothing resembling a closed and exclusive”

Some ancient Jewish exorcism stories betray reliance upon the Watchers mythology as attested in Enochic literature.

“Notably, some ancient Jewish exorcism stories betray reliance upon the Watchers mythology as attested in Enochic literature.”

For many early followers of Jesus, the book(s) of Enoch seem to have functioned as Scripture.

“for many early followers of Jesus,”

• cites [149] 149. Chin, Catherine. "Cosmos." In Late Ancient Knowing: Explorations in Intellectual History, edited by Catherine Chin and Moulie Vidas, 99-111. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2015.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Josephus points to Eleazar, who uses roots, incantations, and the invocation of Solomon's name to drive out demons, as evidence for the continuing potency of Jewish exorcism.

“As evidence for the continuing potency of Jewish exorcism, Josephus points to the activities of a certain Eleazar, who uses roots, incantations, and the invocation of Solomon's name in order to drive out demons.141”

• cites Antiquities 8.46-48Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The Songs of the Maskil (4Q510-511) provide evidence for apotropaic techniques by which humans can keep demons at bay.

“We find evidence for similar apotropaic techniques in the Songs of the Maskil (4Q510-511), where the narrator”

• cites 4Q510 I I 4-6Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites 4Q511 35 6-8Not matched

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Psalms (11Q11) contain adaptations of biblical psalms repurposed for thwarting demonic affliction.

“Psalms (11Q11) contain adaptations of biblical psalms repurposed for thwarting demonic affliction.131”

• cites 11Q11Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

If the Synoptic Gospels are any indication, Jesus' earliest followers maintained a notable belief that unclean spirits or demons could usurp the bodies of unsuspecting human hosts.

“If the Synoptic Gospels are any indication, Jesus' earliest followers maintained a notable belief that”

• cites [152] 152. ___. The Origenist Controversy: The Cultural Construction of an Early Christian Debate. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The Synoptic Gospels reliably indicate the beliefs of Jesus' earliest followers.

The demons' ability to inhabit human bodies likely stems from the fact that they originated as spirits that occupied a fleshly body.

“The demons' ability to inhabit human bodies, therefore, likely stems from the fact that they originated as spirits that occupied a fleshly body.”

Greco-Roman healers typically assuage demonic possession through appeasement, rather than combative expulsion.

“What is more, healers in Greco-Roman literature typically assuage demonic possession through appeasement, rather than combative expulsion, as Eric Sorensen points out:”

• cites Eric SorensenNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The demonic body is able to overtake the body of its human victim to such an extent that their identities and physical nature become wholly intertwined.

“The demonic body, then, is able to overtake the body of its human victim to such an extent that their identities and physical nature become wholly intertwined.”

These shared demonological tenets suggest that Mark participates in broadly similar demonological discourses to that of late Second Temple Enochic traditions, at least to the extent that they distinguished the Second Gospel's demonology in part from non-Jewish Greco-Roman traditions.

“These shared demonological tenetsthe impurity of demonic spirits, demonic possession, and apocalyptic belligerencysuggest that Mark participates in broadly similar demonological discourses to that of late Second Temple Enochic traditions, at least to the extent that they will have distinguished the Second Gospel's demonology (in part) from non-Jewish Greco-Roman traditions.”

In depicting demons as entities prone to bodily intrusion, the Gospel of Mark represents the demonic body in a fashion quite similar to descriptions of the spirits of the giants in Enochic-influenced traditions.

“In depicting demons as entities prone to bodily intrusion, the Gospel of Mark represents the demonic body in a fashion quite similar to descriptions of the spirits of the giants in Enochicinfluenced traditions.”

Jesus' initial exorcism inaugurates his public ministry by providing a first glimpse of his cosmic power.

“Jesus' initial exorcism, therefore, inaugurates his public ministry by providing a first glimpse of his cosmic power.”

Demonic bodies in the Gospel of Mark reflect the important ways in which the early Jesus movement drew upon and participated within broader Jewish discourses of embodiment.

“In such a way, demonic bodies in the Gospel of Mark reflect the important ways in which the early Jesus movement drew upon and participated within broader Jewish discourses of embodiment.”

The short authoritative commands of Jesus to demons in the gospel narratives are formulas of magical adjuration.

“The short authoritative commands of Jesus to demons in the gospel narratives are formulas of magical adjuration.”

• cites David Aune, 'Magic in early Christianity,' Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.23. 2 (1990), 1507-1557 [1532].Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The possessed swine's self-destructive plunge into the sea becomes explicable as another skirmish in the giants' ongoing internecine warfare.

“When contextualized within the demons' broader history of civil violence, however, the possessed swine's self-destructive plunge into the sea becomes explicable as just another skirmish in the giants' ongoing internecine warfare.”

The demoniacs' self-destructive behavior and social alienation suggest that the demons' motivations for human inhabitation stemmed largely from revenge, rather than reward.

“Rather, the demoniacs' self-destructive behavior and social alienation suggest that the demons' motivations for human inhabitation stemmed largely from revenge, rather than reward.”

The Beelzebul incident highlights the Second Gospel's claim that Jesus' special exorcistic abilities stem from his possession by a divine spirit.

“The Beelzebul incident, therefore, highlights the Second Gospel's claim that Jesus' special exorcistic abilities stem from his possession by a divine spirit.”

For the Second Gospel, the human body is an entity liable to possession by external spirits.

“The threat of demonic possession, for example, makes clear that for the Second Gospel, the human body is an entity liable to possession by external spirits.”

Despite the claims of early apologists, the Christian use of short adjurations in their exorcistic practice does not signal a complete break from contemporary Greco-Roman practice.

“Despite the claims of early apologists, then, the Christian use of short adjurations in their exorcistic practice does not signal a complete break from contemporary Greco-Roman practice.”

Beginning in late antiquity, Christian writers increasingly understood demonic affliction as not immediately manifest on the exterior body but revealed through inner torments of the soul and/or mind.

“Beginning in late antiquity, Christian writers increasingly understood demonic affliction as a phenomenon that was not made immediately manifest on the exterior”

• cites Sorensen, Possession and Exorcism, 209-214Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Even though the demons might have lost their gigantic bodies, there are hints that they have retained their former strength.

“Even though the demons might have lost their gigantic bodies, there are hints that they have retained their former strength.”

Evidence suggests Christian participation in so-called magical rites.

“The need to consider potential overlaps between Christians and Greco-Roman magical practice intensifies when we consider evidence that suggests Christian participation in so-called magical rites.”

The exorcism stories in the Second Gospel reveal much about the bodies that populated the Marcan cosmos, including the invasive and violent bodies of demons as well as the porous human body with which they often mingled.

“The exorcism stories in the Second Gospel, therefore, reveal much about the bodies that populated the Marcan cosmos, including the invasive and violent bodies of demons as well as the porous human body with which they often mingled.”

The power required to combat demonic possession stems from the human body's ability to host a benevolent divine spirit.

“What is more, the power required to combat such possession stems from the human body's ability to host a benevolent divine spirit.”

Greek amulets from the second and third centuries contain short adjurations designed to protect the amulet bearer from demonic attack.

“On Greek amulets from the second and third centuries, for example, we discover several that contain short adjurations designed to protect the amulet bearer from demonic attack”

The demoniac's self-harm could be the inhabiting demons attempting to harm each other, as they did as giants, through the physical vessel of the demoniac's body.

“The demoniac's self-harm, therefore, could in fact be the inhabiting demons attempting to harm each other, as they did in their former lives as giants, through the physical vessel of the demoniac's body.”

When taking a broader view beyond the PGM and early church fathers, the line between Greco-Roman and Christian exorcistic traditions begins to blur.

“When we take a broader view of exorcism among Greco-Romans and Christiansthat is, beyond the contrast between the PGM and early church fathersthe line between these traditions begins to blur.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The examples of non-Christian exorcism cited (PGM, amulets, Lucian, Philostratus) are representative of broader Greco-Roman exorcistic practice.

Christian practice participates in, rather than diverges from, broader ritual traditions of the ancient Mediterranean.

“it would be more fruitful to consider the ways in which Christian practice participates in, rather than diverges from, broader ritual traditions of the ancient Mediterranean.”

Jesus positions exorcism as the initial binding of Satan that will enable Jesus to plunder the adversary's kingdom and establish divine rule.

“Jesus here ostensibly positions exorcism as the initial”

At every turn in the Gospel of Mark, the human body is an entity prone to possession by external spirits whether good or evil.

“At every turn in the Gospel of Mark, therefore, the human body is an entity prone to possession by external spiritswhether good or evil.”

The narration of demoniacs performing violent acts or possessing unnatural strength might be a vestige of broader mythologies that connected demonic spirits to the antediluvian giants.

“The narration of demoniacs performing violent acts or possessing unnatural strength might be a vestige of broader mythologies that connected demonic spirits to the antediluvian giants.”

The Syrian's approach to exorcism in Lucian's Lover of Lies largely mirrors that of Jesus: a short exchange with the demon followed by an imperative adjuration that expels the spirit.

“The Syrian's approach to exorcism, therefore, largely mirrors that of Jesus: a short exchange with the demon, followed by an imperative adjuration that expels the spirit.”

• cites Lover of Lies 16Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

This exploration provides additional evidence for previous proposals that Second Temple Enochic traditions might serve as an important literary background for New Testament demonologies.

“This exploration, then, provides additional evidence for previous proposals that Second Temple Enochic traditions might serve as an important literary background for New Testament demonologies.”

Portrayals of the demonic body in the Gospel of Mark display several notable parallels with ancient Jewish narratives regarding antediluvian giants and their residual spirits.

“As demonstrated by this overview, portrayals of the demonic body in the Second Gospel display several notable parallels with ancient Jewish narratives regarding antediluvian giants and their residual spirits.”

The Gospel of Peter, a second-century gospel, narrates Jesus' resurrection as emerging in a glorified form, not his normal body.

“This text, a second century gospel extant in fragmentary form, narrates a resurrection story wherein Jesus does not emerge from the tomb in his normal body, but in a glorified form, accompanied by heavenly figures:”

• cites Gospel of PeterNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Ignatius constructs an explicit contrast between Jesus' authentic fleshly suffering and the incorporeal, demonic existence to which his opponents are doomed.

“With this passage, Ignatius constructs an explicit contrast between Jesus' authentic (fleshly) suffering and the incorporeal, demonic existence to which Ignatius' opponents are apparently doomed.”

As Christian exorcists enacted or contested this ritual taxonomy through public exorcisms, the Christian body will have taken shape amid the complex interplay of varying ritual discourses and practices.

“As Christian exorcists enacted or contested this ritual taxonomy through public exorcisms, the Christian body will have taken shape amid the complex interplay of varying ritual discourses and practices.”

In serving as both exorcistic foil and corporeal counterpart, the demonic body aided in the public performance of a Christian body that had been cleansed of the demonic and intermingled with the spirit of the divine.

“In serving as both exorcistic foil and corporeal counterpart, the demonic body aided in the public performance of a Christian body that had been cleansed of the demonic and intermingled with the spirit of the divine.”

The proposal that Ignatius' demon language is simply representative of Greek usage is unlikely.

“This proposal is unlikely on several fronts.”

The collective witness of the Ophites, Marcion, and Valentinians showcases the striking diversity of Christological positions in the 2nd century.

“The collective witness of the Ophites, Marcion, and Valentinians, then, showcases the striking diversity of Christological positions in the 2 nd century.”

• cites IrenaeusNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites TertullianNot matched

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• cites EpiphaniusNot matched

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In the Acts of Thomas, the narrative concentrates exorcistic power in the commanding presence of the Christian ritual expert.

“In similar fashion to other Christian texts, then, the Acts of Thomas concentrates exorcistic power in the commanding presence of the Christian ritual expert.”

• cites Acts of ThomasNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Ultimately, the practice of exorcism in early Christianity demonstrates that even when Christians claimed to have superior power in expelling spirits, they articulated and performed visions of Christian corporeality that attested to the ongoing entanglement of the Christian body with its demonic foes.

“Ultimately, the practice of exorcism in early Christianity demonstrates that even when Christians claimed to have superior power in expelling spirits, they articulated and performed visions of Christian corporeality that attested to the ongoing entanglement of the Christian body with its demonic foes.”

Eusebius' Ecclesiastical History does not provide unambiguous evidence for Ignatius' martyrdom.

“not provide unambiguous evidence for Ignatius' martyrdom (Ecclesiastical History 3.36).”

• cites Ecclesiastical History 3.36Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Ideas regarding the demonic body in the earliest writings of the Jesus movement testify to the interimplication of demonic and human bodies.

“As traced in this chapter, ideas regarding the demonic body in the earliest writings of the Jesus movement testify to the interimplication of demonic and human bodies.”

Acts stands as an early example of a widespread trend in early Jesus movement and early Christianity literature: the emphasis on the unique potency of the Christian body in performing effective exorcisms.

“Acts stands as an early example of what is a widespread trend in the literature of the early Jesus movement and early Christianity: the emphasis on the unique potency of the Christian body in performing effective exorcisms.”

The examples of Justin and Irenaeus highlight how early Christians utilized prescriptive paradigms of exorcistic practice to construct particular understandings of Christian ritual.

“The examples of Justin and Irenaeus highlight how early Christians utilized prescriptive paradigms of exorcistic practice to construct particular understandings of Christian ritual.”

From these witnesses emerges a collective portrayal of the Christian ritual body: confident, powerful, and effective.

“From these witnesses emerges a collective portrayal of the Christian ritual body: confident, powerful, and effective.”

This discourse created a ritual taxonomy whereby ritual bodies were organized, interpreted, and inscribed with certain types of meaning.

“This discourse created a ritual taxonomy whereby ritual bodies were organized, interpreted, and inscribed with certain types of meaning.”

Ignatius' linking of bodiless demons with competing Christian claims about the body of Jesus serves as a foundation for an exclusivist ritual ideology where those who disagree with Ignatius on Christological matters are disqualified from full participation in the Christian community.

“Ignatius' linking of bodiless demons with competing Christian claims about the body of Jesus serves as a foundation for an exclusivist ritual ideology where those who disagree with Ignatius on Christological matters are disqualified from full participation in the Christian community.”

The demonic contributed to the reproduction of certain Christian corporeal paradigms, primarily in its informing of particular ritual taxonomies.

“Simultaneously, the demonic contributed to the reproduction of certain Christian corporeal paradigms, primarily in its informing of particular ritual taxonomies.”

In Acts, the sons of Sceva's failure to exorcize a demon results from their own lack of affiliation with Jesus, not from improper technique.

“The failure of the Jewish exorcists, therefore, results from their own lack of affiliation with Jesus, as indicated by the demons' response to their futile adjuration”

• cites Acts 19:15Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Christian understandings of Jesus' body were very much fluid in the first few centuries after his death.

“Indeed, if the rich diversity of early Christian Christologies is any indication, Christian understandings of Jesus' body were very much fluid in the first few centuries after his death; our scholarly categories must be adaptable enough to grapple with that variability.”

There existed a wide-ranging debate within first- and second-century Christianity regarding the nature of Jesus' body after his resurrection, with a particular focus on how this post-resurrection corporeality related to its former state.

“We see here, then, that there existed a wide-ranging debate within first and second century Christianity regarding the nature of Jesus' body after his resurrection, with a particular focus on how this post-resurrection corporeality related to its former state.”

These alternative Christian traditions were not merely articulating a Christology of lack, but making affirmative declarations regarding the potency and ability of Jesus' post-resurrection body.

“As such, it is clear that these alternative Christian traditions were not merely articulating a Christology of lack (as certain heresiologists would have it), but making affirmative declarations regarding the potency and ability of Jesus' post-resurrection body.”

In early Christian literature, the Christological assumptions that inform Jesus' resurrection appearance are entangled with allied ideas regarding materiality, spirituality, and the true nature of proper human embodiment.

“As seen elsewhere in early Christian literature, therefore, the Christological assumptions that inform Jesus' resurrection appearance are entangled with allied ideas regarding materiality, spirituality, and the true nature of proper (human) embodiment.”

The two features of Docetism-its wide and imprecise applicability-stem from the term's use among early Christian heresiologists (and later, biblical scholars) as an umbrella term for deviant Christologies.

“These two features of Docetismits wide and imprecise applicability -stem from the term's use among early Christian heresiologists (and later, biblical scholars) as an umbrella term for deviant Christologies.”

The Christology of the CAP differs at several points from Ignatius' Letter to the Smyrnaeans, most notably on the significance of Jesus' flesh and the events of the crucifixion.

“The Christology of the CAP differs at several points from Ignatius' Letter to the Smyrnaeans, most notably on the significance of Jesus' flesh and the events of the crucifixion.”

This tri-fold Christology ('man of Elohim'/living Jesus/the Savior) and alternative understanding of the crucifixion serve as the foundation for the CAP's disparagement of fellow Christians.

“This tri-fold Christology (”