Street Stops and Broken Windows: Terry, Race and Disorder in New York City

Fagan, Jeffrey; Davies, Garth

doi:10.2139/ssrn.257813

PreprintCited by 286Policing Practices and PerceptionsCriminal Justice and Corrections AnalysisCriminal Justice and Penology

Street Stops and Broken Windows: Terry, Race and Disorder in New York City

Open access

Fagan, Jeffrey, Davies, Garth·2001·SSRN Electronic Journal

DOI 10.2139/ssrn.257813

Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

Patterns of "stop and frisk" activity by police across New York City neighborhoods reflect competing theories of aggressive policing. "Broken Windows" theory suggests that neighborhoods with greater concentrations of physical and social disorder should evidence higher stop and frisk activity, especially for "quality of life" crimes. However, while disorder theory informs quality of life policing strategies, observed patterns of stop and frisk activity suggest that neighborhood characteristics such as racial composition, poverty levels and the extent of social disorganization are stronger predictors of race- and crime-specific police stops than is the presence of "broken windows." Furthermore, stops of minority citizens more often failed to meet Terry standards of reasonable suspicion, suggesting the conflation of race with the strategic design of "order maintenance policing." Our empirical evidence suggests that policing is not about disorderly places, nor about improving the quality of life, but about policing poor people in poor places. This strategy contradicts the policy rationale derived from Broken Windows theory, and deviates from its original emphasis on community conditions by instead focusing disproportionately on minority citizens. Racially disparate policing reinforces perceptions by citizens in minority neighborhoods that they are under non-particularized suspicion and are therefore targeted for aggressive stop and frisk policing. Such broad targeting raises concerns about the legitimacy of law, threatens to weaken citizen participation in the co-production of security, and undercuts the broader social norms goals of contemporary policing.

The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.

Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.2139/ssrn.257813

Cites

2 of 2 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Claims the paper makes

The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.

Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

The self-check needs the paper’s full text.

Articulating Ratio Legis and Practical Reasoning
Dybowski, M. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-74271-7_3 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Correction
(1999) · The Journal of General Physiology · doi:10.1085/jgp.114.6.839 · Cited by 1 · see citing works

Flagged first, then by citations

Sorted by citations

“POLICE DON'T LIKE BLACK PEOPLE”: AFRICAN‐AMERICAN YOUNG MEN'S ACCUMULATED POLICE EXPERIENCES*
BRUNSON, R. K. (2007) · Criminology & Public Policy · doi:10.1111/j.1745-9133.2007.00423.x · Cited by 844 · see citing works
New Directions in Social Disorganization Theory
Kubrin, C. E., & Weitzer, R. (2003) · Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency · doi:10.1177/0022427803256238 · Cited by 877 · see citing works
WE NEVER CALL THE COPS AND HERE IS WHY: A QUALITATIVE EXAMINATION OF LEGAL CYNICISM IN THREE PHILADELPHIA NEIGHBORHOODS*
CARR, P. J., NAPOLITANO, L., & KEATING, J. (2007) · Criminology · doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.2007.00084.x · Cited by 641 · see citing works
Procedural Justice and Order Maintenance Policing: A Study of Inner‐City Young Men’s Perceptions of Police Legitimacy
Gau, J. M., & Brunson, R. K. (2010) · Justice Quarterly · doi:10.1080/07418820902763889 · Cited by 582 · see citing works
Young Black Men and Urban Policing in the United States
Brunson, R. K., & Miller, J. (2005) · The British Journal of Criminology · doi:10.1093/bjc/azi093 · Cited by 472 · see citing works
Police Relations with Black and White Youths in Different Urban Neighborhoods
Brunson, R. K., & Weitzer, R. (2008) · Urban Affairs Review · doi:10.1177/1078087408326973 · Cited by 398 · see citing works
Black or Blue: Racial Profiling and Representative Bureaucracy
Wilkins, V. M., & Williams, B. N. (2008) · Public Administration Review · doi:10.1111/j.1540-6210.2008.00905.x · Cited by 324 · see citing works
POLICE DISRESPECT TOWARD THE PUBLIC: AN ENCOUNTER‐BASED ANALYSIS*
MASTROFSKI, S. D., REISIG, M. D., & McCLUSKEY, J. D. (2002) · Criminology · doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.2002.tb00965.x · Cited by 317 · see citing works
Examining the influence of drivers' characteristics during traffic stops with police: Results from a national survey
ENGEL, R. S., & Cherkauskas, J. C. (2004) · Justice Quarterly · doi:10.1080/07418820400095741 · Cited by 257 · see citing works
Theory and racial profiling: Shortcomings and future directions in research
ENGEL, R. S., Cherkauskas, J. C., & Bernard, T. J. (2002) · Justice Quarterly · doi:10.1080/07418820200095231 · Cited by 241 · see citing works
NEIGHBORHOOD RACIAL CONTEXT AND PERCEPTIONS OF POLICE‐BASED RACIAL DISCRIMINATION AMONG BLACK YOUTH*
Stewart, E. A., Baumer, E. P., Brunson, R. K., & Simons, R. L. (2009) · Criminology · doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.2009.00159.x · Cited by 204 · see citing works
De-policing and crime in the wake of Ferguson: Racialized changes in the quantity and quality of policing among Missouri police departments
Shjarback, J. A., Pyrooz, D. C., Wolfe, S. E., & Decker, S. H. (2017) · Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2017.04.003 · Cited by 182 · see citing works
DID CEASEFIRE, COMPSTAT , AND EXILE REDUCE HOMICIDE?*
Rosenfeld, R., Fornango, R. J., & Baumer, E. P. (2005) · Criminology & Public Policy · doi:10.1111/j.1745-9133.2005.00310.x · Cited by 180 · see citing works
THE IMPACT OF ORDER‐MAINTENANCE POLICING ON NEW YORK CITY HOMICIDE AND ROBBERY RATES: 1988‐2001*
Rosenfeld, R., Fornango, R. J., & Rengifo, A. F. (2007) · Criminology · doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.2007.00081.x · Cited by 180 · see citing works
Pot as Pretext: Marijuana, Race, and the New Disorder in New York City Street Policing
Geller, A., & Fagan, J. A. (2010) · Journal of Empirical Legal Studies · doi:10.1111/j.1740-1461.2010.01190.x · Cited by 180 · see citing works
Self-citation
Characterizing Perceived Police Violence: Implications for Public Health
Cooper, H. L. F., Moore, L. D., Gruskin, S., & Krieger, N. (2004) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.94.7.1109 · Cited by 165 · see citing works
“Oh hell no, we don't talk to police”
Brunson, R. K., & Wade, B. A. (2019) · Criminology & Public Policy · doi:10.1111/1745-9133.12448 · Cited by 146 · see citing works
Effects of an Intensive Street-Level Police Intervention on Syringe Exchange Program Use in Philadelphia, Pa
Davis, C. S., Burris, S. C., Kraut-Becher, J. R., Lynch, K. G., & Metzger, D. (2005) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.2003.033563 · Cited by 143 · see citing works
Street Stops and Broken Windows Revisited: The Demography and Logic of Proactive Policing in a Safe and Changing City
Fagan, J. A., Geller, A., Davies, G. J., & West, V. (2009) · bepress Legal Repository · doi:10.18574/nyu/9780814776155.003.0013 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Self-citation
Disparity and Racial Profiling in Traffic Enforcement
Novak, K. J. (2004) · Police Quarterly · doi:10.1177/1098611102250359 · Cited by 138 · see citing works
Could Innovations in Policing have Contributed to the New York City Crime Drop even in a Period of Declining Police Strength?: The Case of Stop, Question and Frisk as a Hot Spots Policing Strategy
Weisburd, D. L., Telep, C. W., & Lawton, B. A. (2013) · Justice Quarterly · doi:10.1080/07418825.2012.754920 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
Mass Incarceration and Racial Inequality
Pettit, B., & Gutiérrez, C. (2018) · American Journal of Economics and Sociology · doi:10.1111/ajes.12241 · Cited by 127 · see citing works
Revisiting Broken Windows Theory: Examining the Sources of the Discriminant Validity of Perceived Disorder and Crime
Gau, J. M., & Pratt, T. C. (2010) · Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2010.05.002 · Cited by 122 · see citing works
Translating Causal Claims
Sampson, R. J., Winship, C., & Knight, C. R. (2013) · Criminology & Public Policy · doi:10.1111/1745-9133.12027 · Cited by 121 · see citing works
Ungoverned space: Global security and the geopolitics of broken windows
Mitchell, K. (2010) · Political Geography · doi:10.1016/j.polgeo.2010.03.004 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
Strategic Responses to the Police Among Inner-City Youth
Weitzer, R., & Brunson, R. K. (2009) · Sociological Quarterly · doi:10.1111/j.1533-8525.2009.01139.x · Cited by 119 · see citing works
The Penology of Racial Innocence: The Erasure of Racism in the Study and Practice of Punishment
Murakawa, N., & Beckett, K. (2010) · Law & Society Review · doi:10.1111/j.1540-5893.2010.00420.x · Cited by 121 · see citing works
Policing and Race: Disparate Treatment, Perceptions, and Policy Responses
Kahn, K. B., & Martin, K. D. (2016) · Social Issues and Policy Review · doi:10.1111/sipr.12019 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
Lines and shadows: Perceptions of racial profiling and the Hispanic experience
Reitzel, J. D., Rice, S. K., & Piquero, A. R. (2004) · Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2004.08.011 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
Taxing the Poor: Incarceration, Poverty Governance, and the Seizure of Family Resources
Katzenstein, M., & Waller, M. R. (2015) · Perspectives on Politics · doi:10.1017/s153759271500122x · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Addressing the “Risk Environment” for Injection Drug Users: The Mysterious Case of the Missing Cop
BURRIS, S., BLANKENSHIP, K. M., DONOGHOE, M., SHERMAN, S., VERNICK, J. S., CASE, P., LAZZARINI, Z., & KOESTER, S. (2004) · The Milbank Quarterly · doi:10.1111/j.0887-378x.2004.00304.x · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Viewing law and order: Mothers’ and sons’ justice system legitimacy attitudes and juvenile recidivism.
Cavanagh, C., & Cauffman, E. (2015) · Psychology, Public Policy, and Law · doi:10.1037/law0000054 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
The Illness Associations of Police Violence: Differential Relationships by Ethnoracial Composition
Sewell, A. A. (2017) · Sociological Forum · doi:10.1111/socf.12361 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Perceptions of the local danger posed by crime: Race, disorder, informal control, and the police
Drakulich, K. (2013) · Social Science Research · doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2012.12.012 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
The Role of Perceptions of the Police in Informal Social Control
Drakulich, K., & Crutchfield, R. D. (2013) · Social Problems · doi:10.1525/sp.2013.60.3.383 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Producing race disparities: A study of drug arrests across place and race*
Gaston, S. (2019) · Criminology · doi:10.1111/1745-9125.12207 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Comparing Benchmark Methodologies for Police-Citizen Contacts: Traffic Stop Data Collection for the Pennsylvania State Police
ENGEL, R. S., & Cherkauskas, J. C. (2004) · Police Quarterly · doi:10.1177/1098611103257686 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
How neighborhoods matter in fatal interactions between police and men of color.
Johnson, O., Vil, C. R. S., Gilbert, K. L., Goodman, M., & Johnson, C. A. (2019) · Social Science & Medicine (1967) · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2018.11.024 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Accounting for Variation in Distrust of Local Police
Sharp, E. B., & Johnson, P. E. (2009) · Justice Quarterly · doi:10.1080/07418820802290496 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
FOREVER THE SYMBOLIC ASSAILANT: THE MORE THINGS CHANGE, THE MORE THEY REMAIN THE SAME
Jones‐Brown, D. (2007) · Criminology & Public Policy · doi:10.1111/j.1745-9133.2007.00424.x · Cited by 72 · see citing works
DO RETURNING PAROLEES AFFECT NEIGHBORHOOD CRIME? A CASE STUDY OF SACRAMENTO*
Hipp, J. R., & YATES, D. K. (2009) · Criminology · doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.2009.00166.x · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Police stops to reduce crime: A systematic review and meta-analysis
Petersen, K., Weisburd, D., Fay, S., Eggins, E., & Mazerolle, L. (2023) · Campbell Systematic Reviews: Better Evidence for a Better World · doi:10.1002/cl2.1302 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Institutionalizing inequality in the courts: Decomposing racial and ethnic disparities in detention, conviction, and sentencing*
Omori, M., & Petersen, N. (2020) · Criminology · doi:10.1111/1745-9125.12257 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Secure Communities and Community Values: Local Context and Discretionary Immigration Law Enforcement
Chand, D. E., & Schreckhise, W. D. (2014) · Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies · doi:10.1080/1369183x.2014.986441 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Police legitimacy and resident cooperation in crime hotspots: effects of victimisation risk and collective efficacy
Kochel, T. R. (2016) · Policing & Society · doi:10.1080/10439463.2016.1174235 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Race, Place, and Drug Enforcement
ENGEL, R. S., Smith, M. R., & Cullen, F. T. (2012) · Criminology & Public Policy · doi:10.1111/j.1745-9133.2012.00841.x · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Studying New York City’s Crime Decline: Methodological Issues
Greenberg, D. (2014) · Understanding New York’s Crime Drop · doi:10.1080/07418825.2012.752026 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Variable links within perceived police legitimacy?: Fairness and effectiveness across races and places
Taylor, R. B., Wyant, B. R., & Lockwood, B. (2014) · Social Science Research · doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2014.08.004 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Forcible Stops: Police and Citizens Speak Out
Eterno, J., Barrow, C. S., & Silverman, E. B. (2016) · Public Administration Review · doi:10.1111/puar.12684 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Disproportionate Minority Contact in Canada: Police and Visible Minority Youth
Fitzgerald, R. T., & Carrington, P. J. (2011) · Canadian Journal of Criminology and Criminal Justice · doi:10.3138/cjccj.53.4.449 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Deconstructing the Ferguson effect: a multilevel mediation analysis of public scrutiny, de-policing, and crime
Capellan, J. A., Lautenschlager, R., & Silva, J. R. (2019) · Journal of Crime and Justice · doi:10.1080/0735648x.2019.1652921 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Managing the Urban Commons
O'Brien, D. T. (2012) · Human Nature · doi:10.1007/s12110-012-9156-6 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
RACE, JUSTICE, POLICING, AND THE 2016 AMERICAN PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION
Drakulich, K., Hagan, J. L., Johnson, D., & Wozniak, K. H. (2016) · Du Bois Review Social Science Research on Race · doi:10.1017/s1742058x1600031x · Cited by 56 · see citing works
A Contextual Study of Racial Profiling
Parker, K. F., MacDonald, J. M., Alpert, G. P., Smith, M. R., & Piquero, A. R. (2004) · American Behavioral Scientist · doi:10.1177/0002764203261073 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Police militarization in the USA: the state of the field
Bieler, S. (2016) · Policing An International Journal · doi:10.1108/pijpsm-03-2016-0042 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
The cumulative risk of jail incarceration
Western, B., Davis, J., Ganter, F., & Smith, N. (2021) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2023429118 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
The Influence of Places on Police Decision Pathways: From Call for Service to Arrest
Lum, C. M. (2010) · Justice Quarterly · doi:10.1080/07418825.2010.526130 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Untitled work
(2004) · doi:10.1177/0002716204263637 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Criminalized Masculinities: How Policing Shapes the Construction of Gender and Sexuality in Poor Black Communities
Stuart, F. D., & Benezra, A. (2017) · Social Problems · doi:10.1093/socpro/spx017 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Minority representation in policing and racial profiling
Shjarback, J. A., Decker, S. H., Rojek, J. J., & Brunson, R. K. (2017) · Policing An International Journal · doi:10.1108/pijpsm-09-2016-0145 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Whose lives mattered? How White and Black Americans felt about Black Lives Matter in 2016
Drakulich, K., Wozniak, K. H., Hagan, J. L., & Johnson, D. (2021) · Law & Society Review · doi:10.1111/lasr.12552 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Did Post- Floyd et al. Reforms Reduce Racial Disparities in NYPD Stop, Question, and Frisk Practices? An Exploratory Analysis Using External and Internal Benchmarks
MacDonald, J. M., & Braga, A. A. (2018) · Justice Quarterly · doi:10.1080/07418825.2018.1427278 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Persistent and aggressive interactions with the police: potential mental health implications
Hirschtick, J. L., Homan, S., Rauscher, G., Rubin, L., Johnson, T., Peterson, C., & Persky, V. (2019) · Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences · doi:10.1017/s2045796019000015 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Perceptions of discrimination and justice in New York City
Rice, S. K., & Piquero, A. R. (2005) · Policing An International Journal · doi:10.1108/13639510510581002 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Race and Selective Enforcement in Public Housing
Fagan, J., Davies, G., & Carlis, A. (2012) · Journal of Empirical Legal Studies · doi:10.1111/j.1740-1461.2012.01272.x · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Self-citation
It's Official: Predictors of Self-Reported vs. Officially Recorded Arrests
Pollock, W., Menard, S., Elliott, D. S., & Huizinga, D. H. (2015) · Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2014.12.004 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Close Call: Race and Gender in Encounters with the Police by Black and Latino/a Youth in New York City
Rengifo, A. F., & Pater, M. (2017) · Sociological Inquiry · doi:10.1111/soin.12166 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Rassistische Praktiken bei der Schutz- und Kriminalpolizei – Die Bedeutung der polizeilichen Felder für die Konstruktion von Tatverdächtigen
Hunold, D. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-37133-3_13 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Revisiting broken windows theory: A test of the mediation impact of social mechanisms on the disorder–fear relationship
Gau, J. M., Corsaro, N. A., & Brunson, R. K. (2014) · Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2014.10.002 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Allocating Police Resources While Limiting Racial Inequality
Wheeler, A. P. (2019) · Justice Quarterly · doi:10.1080/07418825.2019.1630471 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Federal investigations of police misconduct: a multi-city comparison
D’Souza, A., Weitzer, R., & Brunson, R. K. (2018) · Crime Law and Social Change · doi:10.1007/s10611-018-9797-4 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Area Differences and Time Trends in Crime Reporting: Comparing New York with Other Metropolitan Areas
Xie, M. (2012) · Justice Quarterly · doi:10.1080/07418825.2012.742126 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
The effect of vacant building demolitions on crime under depopulation
Stacy, C. P. (2017) · Journal of Regional Science · doi:10.1111/jors.12350 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
The Usual, Racialized, Suspects: The Consequence of Police Contacts with Black and White Youth on Adult Arrest
McGlynn‐Wright, A., Crutchfield, R. D., Skinner, M. L., & Haggerty, K. P. (2020) · Social Problems · doi:10.1093/socpro/spaa042 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
The dynamics of robbery and violence hot spots
Herrmann, C. R. (2015) · Crime Science · doi:10.1186/s40163-015-0042-5 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Testing for Similarity in Area-Based Spatial Patterns: Alternative Methods to Andresen's Spatial Point Pattern Test
Wheeler, A. P., Steenbeek, W., & Andresen, M. A. (2018) · Transactions in GIS · doi:10.1111/tgis.12341 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
EITHER THEY DON'T KNOW OR THEY DON'T CARE: BLACK MALES AND NEGATIVE POLICE EXPERIENCES
STEWART, E. A. (2007) · Criminology & Public Policy · doi:10.1111/j.1745-9133.2007.00425.x · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Do you see what I see? Perceptual variation in reporting the presence of disorder cues
Wallace, D. M., Louton, B., & Fornango, R. J. (2014) · Social Science Research · doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2014.10.004 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Disorder policing to reduce crime: An updated systematic review and meta‐analysis
Braga, A. A., Schnell, C., & Welsh, B. C. (2024) · Criminology & Public Policy · doi:10.1111/1745-9133.12667 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Race/Ethnicity and Perceptions of Police Bias: The Case of Chinese Immigrants
Wu, Y., Smith, B. W., & Sun, I. Y. (2013) · Journal of Ethnicity in Criminal Justice · doi:10.1080/15377938.2012.735989 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Intergroup dynamics of extra-legal police aggression: An integrated theory of race and place
Holmes, M. D., & Smith, B. W. (2012) · Aggression and Violent Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.avb.2012.03.006 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Body‐worn cameras, lawful police stops, and NYPD officer compliance: A cluster randomized controlled trial*
Braga, A. A., MacDonald, J. M., & McCabe, J. (2022) · Criminology · doi:10.1111/1745-9125.12293 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Gun violence is a public health crisis that needs more applied criminologists
Braga, A. A. (2022) · Criminology & Public Policy · doi:10.1111/1745-9133.12608 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Strange bedfellows: civil liability and aggressive policing
Novak, K. J., Smith, B. W., & Frank, J. (2003) · Policing An International Journal · doi:10.1108/13639510310475813 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Testing Broken Windows Theory in Mexico City
Vilalta, C. J., López-Ramírez, P., Fondevila, G., & Siordia, O. S. (2019) · Social Science Quarterly · doi:10.1111/ssqu.12760 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Race, Place, and Context: The Persistence of Race Effects in Traffic Stop Outcomes in the Face of Situational, Demographic, and Political Controls
Shoub, K., Epp, D. A., Baumgartner, F. R., Christiani, L., & Roach, K. (2020) · The Journal of Race Ethnicity and Politics · doi:10.1017/rep.2020.8 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
An Analysis of the NYPD's Stop-And-Frisk Policy in the Context of Claims of Racial BiasPreprint
Gelman, A., Kiss, A., & Fagan, J. A. (2006) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.846365 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Self-citation
“You Don’t Get Respect if You Give No Respect”: How Black and Latino Youth Make Sense of Encounters with Police
Rengifo, A. F., & McCallin, M. (2016) · Sociological Focus · doi:10.1080/00380237.2016.1218218 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Noise complaint patterns in New York City from January 2010 through February 2021: Socioeconomic disparities and COVID-19 exacerbations
Ramphal, B., Dworkin, J. D., Pagliaccio, D., & Margolis, A. E. (2021) · Environmental Research · doi:10.1016/j.envres.2021.112254 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Racial Profiling in Decisions to Search: A Preliminary Analysis Using Propensity-Score Matching
Higgins, G. E., Jennings, W. G., Jordan, K. L., & Gabbidon, S. L. (2011) · International Journal of Police Science & Management · doi:10.1350/ijps.2011.13.4.232 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Dealing with urban terror: heritages of control, varieties of intervention, strategies of research
Molotch, H. L., & McClain, N. (2003) · International Journal of Urban and Regional Research · doi:10.1111/1468-2427.00474 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Evicting the undesirables. The idealism of public space and the materialism of the bourgeois State
Belina, B. (2003) · BELGEO · doi:10.4000/belgeo.15294 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Adolescent Racial Discrimination and Parental Perceptions of Safety in American Neighborhoods and Schools
Sykes, B. L., Piquero, A. R., & Gioviano, J. P. (2017) · Sociological Forum · doi:10.1111/socf.12364 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
‘Rhetoric without reality’ or effective policing strategy? An analysis of the relationship between community policing and police fatal force
Koslicki, W. M., MS, D. J. L., Willits, D. W., & Brooks, R. (2020) · Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2020.101730 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Ending Public Space as We Know It
Belina, B. (2011) · Social Justice A Journal of Crime Conflict & World Order · Cited by 25 · see citing works
The Ethics of Policing and Imprisonment
(2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-97770-6 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Race-ethnicity, nativity, neighbourhood context and reports of unfair treatment by police
Bjornstrom, E. E. S. (2015) · Ethnic and Racial Studies · doi:10.1080/01419870.2015.1023821 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
The Impact of Police on Criminal Justice Reform
ENGEL, R. S., Corsaro, N. A., & Özer, M. (2017) · Criminology & Public Policy · doi:10.1111/1745-9133.12299 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
The Effects of Local Police Surges on Crime and Arrests in New York CityPreprint
MacDonald, J. M., Fagan, J. A., & Geller, A. (2015) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2614058 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Self-citation
Impossibility of a “Reverse Racism” Effect
Roussell, A., Henne, K., Glover, K. S., & Willits, D. W. (2017) · Criminology & Public Policy · doi:10.1111/1745-9133.12289 · Cited by 22 · see citing works

Authors: Fagan, J., & Davies, G.
Affiliations: Columbia University (US)
Simon Fraser University (CA)
Corresponding author: Fagan, Jeffrey
ORCID: Fagan, Jeffrey
Venue: SSRN Electronic Journal
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2001
ISSN: 1556-5068 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.2139/ssrn.257813
OpenAlex: W1586156143
Cited by: 284
References: 2
Citations by year: 2026: 3 · 2025: 10 · 2024: 15 · 2023: 16 · 2022: 26 · 2021: 23 · 2020: 17 · 2019: 24 · 2018: 16 · 2017: 14 · 2016: 17 · 2015: 18 · 2014: 9 · 2013: 10 · 2012: 13
Type: posted content
Language: en
Open access: green
doi.org
Locations: SSRN Electronic Journal (acceptedVersion)
bepress Legal Repository (submittedVersion)
eYLS (Yale Law School) (submittedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Policing Practices and Perceptions
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Criminal Justice and Corrections Analysis
Social Sciences › Law › Criminal Justice and Penology
Keywords: stop and frisk, broken windows theory, Terry v. Ohio, reasonable suspicion, racial disparities in policing, order maintenance policing, social disorder, neighborhood poverty, racial composition, social disorganization, police legitimacy, New York City

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review

Street Stops and Broken Windows: Terry, Race and Disorder in New York City

Abstract

Integrity signals

Claims the paper makes

Self-check

Cites

Cited by

Related

Record

About these checks