Critical Thinking in the Age of AI: A Systematic Review of AI’s Effects on Higher Education
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Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses: The PRISMA Statement
Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J., Altman, D. G., & The PRISMA Group (2009) · PLoS Medicine · doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1000097 · Cited by 64,042 · cited 1× · see citing works
“…a systematic literature review method based on the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) framework, which involves four main stages: identification, screening, eligibility, and inclusion, as illustrated in Figure 1 (Moher et al., 2009; Page et al., 2021).”
The PRISMA 2020 statement: an updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews
Page, M. J., McKenzie, J. E., Bossuyt, P. M., Boutron, I., Hoffmann, T. C., Mulrow, C. D., Shamseer, L., Tetzlaff, J. M., Akl, E. A., Brennan, S. E., et al. (2021) · Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1186/s13643-021-01626-4 · Cited by 13,874 · cited 1× · see citing works
“…a systematic literature review method based on the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) framework, which involves four main stages: identification, screening, eligibility, and inclusion, as illustrated in Figure 1 (Moher et al., 2009; Page et al., 2021).”
Baidoo-Anu, D., & Owusu Ansah, L. (2023) · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4337484 · Cited by 3,004 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Overreliance on ChatGPT may diminish analytical thinking skills and impact students' cognitive abilities, particularly in critical thinking (Bai et al., 2023; Baidoo-Anu & Ansah, 2023).”
ChatGPT for Education and Research: Opportunities, Threats, and Strategies
Rahman, M. M., & Watanobe, Y. (2023) · Applied Sciences · doi:10.3390/app13095783 · Cited by 1,080 · cited 2× · see citing works
“Rahman and Watanobe (2023) and Nikolic et al. (2023) addressed the challenges ChatGPT poses in terms of plagiarism and assessment authenticity, suggesting that the tool's capacity to produce near-perfect answers raises questions about its influence on fostering or hindering critical analysis.”
Revolutionizing education with AI: Exploring the transformative potential of ChatGPT
Adiguzel, T., Kaya, M. H., & Cansu, F. K. (2023) · Contemporary Educational Technology · doi:10.30935/cedtech/13152 · Cited by 975 · cited 1× · see citing works
“In higher education, ChatGPT has the potential to reshape the learning experience by providing instant feedback, generating personalized learning materials, and offering innovative approaches to information processing (Adiguzel et al., 2023).”
Challenges and Opportunities of Generative AI for Higher Education as Explained by ChatGPT
Michel-Villarreal, R., Vilalta-Perdomo, E., Salinas-Navarro, D. E., Thierry-Aguilera, R., & Gerardou, F. S. (2023) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci13090856 · Cited by 877 · cited 1× · see citing works
“ChatGPT can assist students in improving their ability to interpret and analyze information; as Michel-Villarreal et al. (2023) noted, this technology provides diverse insights, enabling students to compare different perspectives.”
Chan, C. K. Y., & Lee, K. K. W. (2023) · Smart Learning Environments · doi:10.1186/s40561-023-00269-3 · Cited by 634 · cited 3× · see citing works
“(Chan & Lee, 2023) GenAI enhances student productivity and efficiency.”
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“These findings are consistent with Ennis (2018) emphasis on analysis and evaluation as crucial to critical thinking, which helps students assess arguments and make informed decisions based on valid data.”
InfluentialUnlocking the opportunities through ChatGPT Tool towards ameliorating the education system
Javaid, M., Haleem, A., Singh, R. P., Khan, S., & Khan, I. H. (2023) · BenchCouncil Transactions on Benchmarks, Standards and Evaluations · doi:10.1016/j.tbench.2023.100115 · Cited by 535 · cited 2× · see citing works
“ChatGPT offers numerous benefits, such as automated assessment, language translation support, and personalized learning experiences (Javaid et al., 2023; Sok & Heng, 2023).”
The impact of ChatGPT on higher education
Dempere, J., Modugu, K., Hesham, A., & Ramasamy, L. K. (2023) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2023.1206936 · Cited by 519 · cited 1× · see citing works
“The emergence of ChatGPT has enhanced learner engagement, simplified administrative tasks, and facilitated interdisciplinary collaboration (Dempere et al., 2023).”
van den Berg, G., & du Plessis, E. (2023) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci13100998 · Cited by 401 · cited 3× · see citing works
“This approach enhances students' analytical abilities and prepares them to seize new opportunities and face challenges within their areas of study (Berg & Plessis, 2023).”
ChatGPT for Education and Research: A Review of Benefits and Risks
Sok, S., & Heng, K. (2023) · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4378735 · Cited by 386 · cited 2× · see citing works
“ChatGPT offers numerous benefits, such as automated assessment, language translation support, and personalized learning experiences (Javaid et al., 2023; Sok & Heng, 2023).”
Nikolic, S., Daniel, S., Haque, R., Belkina, M., Hassan, G. M., Grundy, S., Lyden, S., Neal, P., & Sandison, C. (2023) · European Journal of Engineering Education · doi:10.1080/03043797.2023.2213169 · Cited by 336 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Rahman and Watanobe (2023) and Nikolic et al. (2023) addressed the challenges ChatGPT poses in terms of plagiarism and assessment authenticity, suggesting that the tool's capacity to produce near-perfect answers raises questions about its influence on fostering or hindering critical analysis.”
The use of ChatGPT in teaching and learning: a systematic review through SWOT analysis approach
Mai, D. T. T., da, C. A. N., & Hanh, N. V. (2024) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2024.1328769 · Cited by 310 · cited 1× · see citing works
“By offering students quick and diverse responses to their questions, ChatGPT stimulates further exploration and discovery (Mai et al., 2024).”
Essel, H. B., Vlachopoulos, D., Essuman, A. B., & Amankwa, J. O. (2024) · Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.caeai.2023.100198 · Cited by 296 · cited 4× · see citing works
“For example, research in Ghana demonstrated an increase in students' critical thinking skills following their use of ChatGPT to filter relevant information (Essel et al., 2024).”
InfluentialFeedback sources in essay writing: peer-generated or AI-generated feedback?
Banihashem, S. K., Kerman, N. T., Noroozi, O., Moon, J., & Drachsler, H. (2024) · International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education · doi:10.1186/s41239-024-00455-4 · Cited by 282 · cited 3× · see citing works
“(Banihashem et al., 2024) ChatGPT’s feedback is descriptive and guides students on essay writing, whereas peer feedback focuses more on identifying issues within the essay.”
The influence of AI text generators on critical thinking skills in UK business schools
Essien, A., Bukoye, O. T., O’Dea, X., & Kremantzis, M. (2024) · Studies in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/03075079.2024.2316881 · Cited by 252 · cited 6× · see citing works
“(Essien et al., 2024) ChatGPT significantly improves critical thinking at basic levels of Bloom’s taxonomy.”
InfluentialLeveraging ChatGPT for Enhancing Critical Thinking Skills
Guo, Y., & Lee, D. (2023) · Journal of Chemical Education · doi:10.1021/acs.jchemed.3c00505 · Cited by 250 · cited 6× · see citing works
“In STEM education, ChatGPT aids students in grasping complex concepts and bolstering their confidence in critical thinking, although they often feel the need to verify information independently (Guo & Lee, 2023).”
InfluentialChatGPT: The End of Online Exam Integrity?
Sušnjak, T., & McIntosh, T. R. (2024) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci14060656 · Cited by 245 · cited 1× · see citing works
“For example, Susnjak (2024) investigated ChatGPT's role in maintaining academic integrity during online assessments, suggesting that although AI models can manage complex multimodal questions, they also introduce risks to academic honesty.”
Educational Applications of the ChatGPT AI System: A Systematic Review Research
İPEK, Z. H., Gözüm, A. İ. C., Papadakis, S., & Kalogiannakis, M. (2023) · Educational Process International Journal · doi:10.22521/edupij.2023.123.2 · Cited by 209 · cited 1× · see citing works
“For instance, ChatGPT can provide counterarguments, alternative perspectives, or requests for further clarification in response to students' questions or argume nts, prompting them to consider topics more thoroughly (İpek et al., 2023).”
Νικολοπούλου, Κ. (2024) · International Journal of Changes in Education · doi:10.47852/bonviewijce42022489 · Cited by 208 · cited 3× · see citing works
“In response to these concerns, integrating ChatGPT into higher education requires carefully evaluating its implications (Nikolopoulou, 2024).”
InfluentialChatGPT: The cognitive effects on learning and memory
Bai, L., Liu, X., & Su, J. (2023) · Brain‐X · doi:10.1002/brx2.30 · Cited by 182 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Overreliance on ChatGPT may diminish analytical thinking skills and impact students' cognitive abilities, particularly in critical thinking (Bai et al., 2023; Baidoo-Anu & Ansah, 2023).”
Vargas-Murillo, A. R., Pari-Bedoya, I. N. M. D. L. A., & Guevara-Soto, F. D. J. (2023) · International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research · doi:10.26803/ijlter.22.7.7 · Cited by 168 · cited 3× · see citing works
“This perspective aligns with the findings of Vargas-Murillo et al. (2023), which indicate that while students recognize the advantages of ChatGPT in accelerating task completion, they also understand that informed decisions about its use should be made based on a comprehensive awareness of its…”
InfluentialAndreucci-Annunziata, P., Riedemann, A., Cortés, S., Mellado, A., del Río, M. T., & Vega-Muñoz, A. (2023) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2023.1141686 · Cited by 128 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Critical thinking skills are essential in higher education for supporting students' academic success (Andreucci-Annunziata et al., 2023).”
Exploring the potential of ChatGPT for foreign language education at the university level
Klímová, B., Pikhart, M., & Al-Obaydi, L. H. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1269319 · Cited by 123 · cited 6× · see citing works
“(Berg, 2024) Not specified Not specified (Klimova et al., 2024) Not explicitly mentioned, but students find this technology useful for learning, despite concerns about its impact.”
InfluentialTseng, Y.-C., & Lin, Y.-H. (2024) · Electronic Journal of e-Learning · doi:10.34190/ejel.21.5.3329 · Cited by 88 · cited 5× · see citing works
“Some studies indicate that students develop critical evaluation skills through reflection and engagement with information generated by ChatGPT (Tseng & Lin, 2024).”
InfluentialJourdain, P. E. B. (1908) · Mathematical Gazette · doi:10.1017/s002555720024312x · Cited by 74
ChatGPT, a brand-new tool to strengthen timeless competencies
Michalon, B., & Camacho-Zúñiga, C. (2023) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2023.1251163 · Cited by 70 · cited 5× · see citing works
“(Michalon & Camacho-Zuñiga, 2023) Not explicitly mentioned, but it is indicated that after six sessions using AI, students were able to strengthen their communication, critical thinking, and logical reasoning.”
InfluentialCong-Lem, N., Tran, T. N., & Nguyen, T. T. (2024) · Teaching English With Technology · doi:10.56297/fsyb3031/mxnb7567 · Cited by 64 · cited 3× · see citing works
“In teaching English as a foreign language (EFL), ChatGPT helps students organize their writing and encourages structural improvement through immediate feedback (Cong-Lem et al., 2024; Tseng & Lin, 2024).”
Tajik, E., & Tajik, F. (2024) · Social Science Research Network · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4699304 · Cited by 63 · cited 1×
“However, the convenience provided by ChatGPT raises concerns regarding academic integrity, privacy, and ethical implications (Rahman & Watanobe, 2023; Tajik & Tajik, 2024).”
Students' Perception of ChatGPT Usage in Education
Valova, I., Mladenova, T., & Kanev, G. (2024) · International Journal of Advanced Computer Science and Applications · doi:10.14569/ijacsa.2024.0150143 · Cited by 59 · cited 4× · see citing works
“Valova et al. (2024) also warned that over-dependence on ChatGPT could hinder the development of deep reflection and analysis skills, essential for becoming independent, critical learners.”
InfluentialEmpowering learners with ChatGPT: insights from a systematic literature exploration
Mohebi, L. (2024) · Discover Education · doi:10.1007/s44217-024-00120-y · Cited by 56 · cited 1× · see citing works
“For instance, students can use ChatGPT to explore different aspects of a subject, such as theoretical frameworks or empirical data, which they can then critically assess and integrate into their work (Mohebi, 2024).”
ChatGPT in Ukrainian Education: Problems and Prospects
Fiialka, S., Kornieva, Z., & Honcharuk, T. (2023) · International Journal of Emerging Technologies in Learning (iJET) · doi:10.3991/ijet.v18i17.42215 · Cited by 45 · cited 6× · see citing works
“Consequently, higher education institutions prioritize developing students' critical thinking skills, equipping them to adapt to complex environments and fostering lifelong learning (Fiialka et al., 2023).”
InfluentialFaisal, E. (2024) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2024.1325601 · Cited by 44 · cited 1× · see citing works
“When using ChatGPT to study texts, data, or arguments, students must critically assess the AI's output, compare it with other sources, and make informed judgments (Faisal, 2024).”
Generative AI and Educators: Partnering in Using Open Digital Content for Transforming Education
van den Berg, G. (2024) · Open Praxis · doi:10.55982/openpraxis.16.2.640 · Cited by 39 · cited 2× · see citing works
“Beyond simple memorization, critical thinking encourages students to explore opposing views, challenge assumptions, and develop well-supported arguments (Berg, 2024).”
Higher education assessment practice in the era of generative AI tools
(2024) · Journal of Applied Learning & Teaching · doi:10.37074/jalt.2024.7.1.28 · Cited by 37 · cited 4× · see citing works
“Students can consider and make decisions based on the feedback they receive.”
InfluentialExploring the factors affecting ChatGPT acceptance among university students
Supianto, Widyaningrum, R., Wulandari, F., Zainudin, M., Athiyallah, A., & Rizqa, M. (2024) · Multidisciplinary Science Journal · doi:10.31893/multiscience.2024273 · Cited by 34 · cited 3× · see citing works
“Critical thinking skills are vital for academic success and for making thoughtful decisions and addressing problems across various professional domains (Supianto et al., 2024).”
InfluentialEsmaeil, A. A. A. H., Dzulkifli, D. N. A. K., Maakip, I., Mantaluk, O. O., & Marshall, S. (2023) · Jurnal Komunikasi Malaysian Journal of Communication · doi:10.17576/jkmjc-2023-3904-08 · Cited by 34 · cited 3× · see citing works
“(Esmaeil et al., 2023) ChatGPT provides information, guidance, and cost/time efficiency, though it has limitations in accuracy.”
Baskara, F. (2023) · Prosiding Seminar Nasional Fakultas Tarbiyah dan Ilmu Keguruan IAIM Sinjai · doi:10.47435/sentikjar.v2i0.1825 · Cited by 32 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Additionally, ChatGPT supports self-directed, independent learning by offering personalized assistance and resources (Baskara, 2023).”
Chat bots to Virtual Tutors: An Overview of Chat GPT's Role in the Future of Education
Graefen, B., & Fazal, N. (2024) · Archives of Pharmacy Practice · doi:10.51847/touppjedsx · Cited by 32 · cited 2× · see citing works
“The presence of ChatGPT raises concerns about the development of critical thinking skills and the potential inhibition of human relationships (Graefen & Fazal, 2024).”
Barana, A., Marchisio, M., & Roman, F. (2023) · Cognition and Exploratory Learning in the Digital Age · doi:10.33965/celda2023_202306l046 · Cited by 30 · cited 5×
“By acting as a catalyst for deeper discussions, ChatGPT invites students to engage actively by asking questions and developing explanations based on available data (Barana et al., 2023; Michalon & Camacho-Zuñiga, 2023).”
InfluentialSilva, A. D. O., & Janes, D. D. S. (2021) · Review of Artificial Intelligence in Education · doi:10.37497/rev.artif.intell.education.v2i00.6 · Cited by 24 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Rapid advances in artificial intelligence (AI), particularly in natural language processing (NLP), have introduced new tools that are transforming various sectors, including education (Silva & Janes, 2021).”
Artificial Intelligence (AI) and its Potential Impact on the Future of Higher Education
Bennett, L., & Abusalem, A. (2024) · Athens Journal of Education · doi:10.30958/aje.11-3-2 · Cited by 24 · cited 3× · see citing works
“At this stage, instructors must provide careful guidance to successfully integrate ChatGPT into learning (Bennett & Abusalem, 2024).”
InfluentialRevolutionising Role-Playing Games with ChatGPT
Stampfl, R., Geyer, B., Deissl-O’Meara, M., et al. (2024) · Advances in Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning · doi:10.54364/aaiml.2024.42129 · Cited by 21 · cited 4× · see citing works
“While ChatGPT is beneficial, students believe it does not replace the importance of developing critical thinking and writing skills independently.”
InfluentialAnalyzing teacher candidates' arguments on AI integration in education via different chatbots
Duran, V. (2024) · Digital Education Review · doi:10.1344/der.2024.45.68-83 · Cited by 21 · cited 2× · see citing works
“Similarly, Duran (2024) analyzed the effects of AI on pedagogical practices and found that while ChatGPT can increase efficiency, it raises concerns about diminishing human interaction and students' critical thinking skills.”
Challenges of using ChatGPT in education: a digital pedagogy analysis
Murtiningsih, S., Sujito, A., & Soe, K. K. (2024) · International Journal of Evaluation and Research in Education (IJERE) · doi:10.11591/ijere.v13i5.29467 · Cited by 14 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Easy access to AI support might undermine the development of essential analytical skills, as students may become overly dependent on technology to tackle academic challenges (Murtiningsih et al., 2024).”
Parental involvement in students’ mathematics activities: A bibliometric analysis
Salido, A., Sugiman, S., Fauziah, P., et al. (2024) · Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education · doi:10.29333/ejmste/15179 · Cited by 12 · cited 1×
“These databases were selected for their user-friendly interfaces, support for the article screening process, and reputation as widely referenced sources of international journals (Salido et al., 2024).”
Self-citationNufus, R. H., Octoviani, R., Eliyana, S., & Sari, I. J. (2023) · Jurnal Pendidikan Indonesia Gemilang · doi:10.53889/jpig.v3i2.208 · Cited by 9 · cited 1× · see citing works
“This skill is crucial for 21st-century learners, especially in higher education, where students must develop the capacity to analyze information, solve problems, and make independent decisions (Akhvlediani et al., 2023; Nufus et al., 2023).”
Mohammed, S. I., Jasim, A. L., Al‐Jumaili, A. A., Mikhael, E. M., & Ali, F. Z. (2024) · Al-Rafidain Journal of Medical Sciences · doi:10.54133/ajms.v6i1.538 · Cited by 8 · cited 5× · see citing works
“By offering quick access to relevant information, efficient data processing, and engaging students in analysis and evaluation, ChatGPT promotes the development of critical thinking skills (Chan & Lee, 2023; Esmaeil et al., 2023; Mohammed et al., 2024).”
InfluentialThe Challenges of the XXI Century – Development of Critical Thinking among the Students
Akhvlediani, M., Abdaladze, L., & Lataria, K. (2023) · SHOTA MESKHIA STATE TEACHING UNIVERSITY OF ZUGDIDI · doi:10.52340/zssu.2023.15.11 · Cited by 4 · cited 1×
“This skill is crucial for 21st-century learners, especially in higher education, where students must develop the capacity to analyze information, solve problems, and make independent decisions (Akhvlediani et al., 2023; Nufus et al., 2023).”
Literacy Strategies and Instructional Modalities in Introductory Accounting
Raskin, R. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-39804-0_4 · Cited by 3 · cited 3× · see citing works
“The capacity to critically assess ideas, situations, and arguments is essential for cultivating strong critical thinking skills (Raskin, 2020).”
AI-Driven Learning: Revolutionizing Higher Education with ChatGPT
(2024) · International Journal of Progressive Research in Engineering Management and Science · doi:10.58257/ijprems32676 · Cited by 1 · cited 1×
“Educators can leverage this technology to streamline workflows, automate administrative tasks, and develop new methods to engage students through AI-driven learning platforms (Anandhi & Keerthana, 2024).”
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Liu, J., Sihes, A. J. B., & Lu, Y. (2025) · Smart Learning Environments · doi:10.1186/s40561-025-00406-0 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
“These findings are largely consistent with Melisa et al. (2025), who observed a similar dominance of qualitative and mixed approaches in technology-enhanced CT studies.”
InfluentialSalido, A., Syarif, I., Sitepu, M. S., Suparjan, Wana, P. R., Taufika, R., & Melisa, R. (2025) · Social Sciences & Humanities Open · doi:10.1016/j.ssaho.2025.101924 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
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Raitskaya, L., & Tikhonova, E. (2025) · Journal of Language and Education · doi:10.17323/jle.2025.27387 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Elshall, A. S., & Badir, A. (2025) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2025.1596462 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“…of this embedding include structured AI-use statement (Perkins et al., 2024), reflection prompts that promote critical evaluation of AI outputs (Melisa et al., 2025; Zhao et al., 2025), and rubrics that assess student learning processes rather than just final products (Moorhouse et al., 2023;…”
InfluentialLi, Z., & Xiao, Y. (2025) · BMC Medical Education · doi:10.1186/s12909-025-07669-8 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“Furthermore, studies found that some students lack trust in AI’s accuracy for critical decisions, preferring traditional methods [10, 76, 114, 119].”
Kangwa, D., Msafiri, M. M., & Fute, A. (2025) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.70109 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
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“AI imposes new roles not only on medical clinicians and researchers, but it also enables new forms of comprehensive overviews and critical analyses so fundamental to medical knowledge comprehension [4, 5, 7, 54].”
InfluentialLi, C. G., Cui, H., & Hagedorn, L. S. (2026) · Computers and Education Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.caeai.2026.100571 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
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Adaptive and Personalized Learning in Higher Education: An Artificial Intelligence-Based Approach
Hernández-Herrera, J. R., Ortiz-Bejar, J., & Ortiz-Bejar, J. (2026) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci16010109 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
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“More so study of Melisa et al (2025) maintained that study Adoption of AI does not improve students’ development of problem solving especially in higher education.”
Oubibi, M. (2025) · Journal of Computers in Education · doi:10.1007/s40692-025-00364-z · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“Other studies found that students who frequently use AI-generated content may develop lower critical thinking abilities, whereas the present study suggests that AI tools positively contribute to student confidence without necessarily reducing engagement (Kim et al., 2024; Melisa et al., 2025).”
Mwakapesa, D. S. (2025) · Information Development · doi:10.1177/02666669251366666 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Reimagining critical thinking in the age of AI: implications for nursing education and practice
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“Alarmingly, several recent reviews consistently suggested that employing GenAI as a content provider for quick answers encourages direct acceptance, which may contribute to limited critical thinking (Melisa et al. 2025; Raitskaya and Tikhonova 2025; Sardi et al. 2025).”
Artificial intelligence for inclusive and sustainable international education
Duke, B. C. (2026) · Journal of International Students · doi:10.32674/96t36095 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“The significance of the paper is manifested by its provision of qualitative insight into the most likely effect of AI on DEI when educating international sustainable students (Melisa et al., 2025, p. 4).”
Rai, M. E., Ngaw, M., & Nannas, N. J. (2025) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci15101400 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Nudgr: A Context-Aware Digital Nudge Intervention to Promote Fact-Checking of GenAI Content
Osop, H., Chia, D. C. Y., Lee, C. S., & Goh, D. H.-L. (2025) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-981-95-4861-3_10 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Balcerzak, A. P., Zinecker, M., & Mičánek, J. (2025) · Human Technology · doi:10.14254/1795-6889.2025.21-3.7 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Leveraging the Use of AI Tools in Practice Teaching
Jackaria, P. M., Pon, M. M. R., Eldani, N.-A. S., Alvarado, H. A. L., & Iralan, S. A. (2026) · Advances in computational intelligence and robotics book series · doi:10.4018/979-8-3373-8027-8.ch005 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Jain, P., Shajit, D., Maini, A., Shahin, Y., & Panda, A. (2026) · Cognitive Processing · doi:10.1007/s10339-026-01375-z · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Scientific Mapping of GenAI in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) Context
Luo, Q., & Chen, F. (2025) · International Journal of Technology and Human Interaction · doi:10.4018/ijthi.384377 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Haywood, S., Padurean, L., Ralph, R., & Tobias, J. M. (2025) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci15070902 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Donadel, V., & Zuin, M. (2026) · Technology Knowledge and Learning · doi:10.1007/s10758-025-09949-0 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Candel, E. C., Pérez, A. L., Berd-Gómez, R., & González-Martín, A. M. (2026) · Cogent Education · doi:10.1080/2331186x.2026.2641323 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Zhang, Q., Liu, L., Li, J., Xing, B., Liu, Z. H., Liu, J., Li, X., Wang, J., Wang, J., & Wang, J. (2026) · BMC Medical Education · doi:10.1186/s12909-026-09358-6 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“This finding resonates with the automation bias literature, which documents how frequent use of automated systems can increase trust in their outputs while reducing engagement in independent verification [11, 14, 37, 38].”
Kao, S., Grant, P., & Woltering, S. (2025) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-8118546/v1 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Artificial Intelligence (AI) Usage and Critical Thinking Skills of Second Year BSED-English Students
Verano, R. M., Bantilan, J. A., Castillano, J. M. A., Tajaran, G. C., Mantilla, J. G. M., & Bongcayat, J. T. (2025) · doi:10.38124/ijisrt/25sep951 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Additionally, the study aligns with the proposition of Melisa et al. (2025) that the structured and guided use of AI tools such as ChatGPT encourages students to access, assess, and apply information, fostering critical thinking and independent judgment.”
Are Pharmacy Programs Obligated to Train Students to Use AI for Clinical Practice?
Nagel, A. K., Díaz‐Cruz, E. S., Edwards, K. L., Fadda, H. M., Gonyeau, M. J., Gumina, G., Prudencio, J. B., Sampognaro, L. A., Strachan, D. A., Amburgh, J. A. V., et al. (2026) · American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education · doi:10.1016/j.ajpe.2026.101951 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Ashbourne, A. C. (2026) · International Journal of Social Sciences and Education Research · doi:10.24289/ijsser.1771902 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Altamirano, S. F. S., Maquen-Niño, G. L. E., Roldán, C. M. G., Herrera, A. P., & Cárdenas, D. M. C. (2026) · Review of Education · doi:10.1002/rev3.70152 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
The Improvement or Hindrance of the New Generation of Artificial Intelligence
Li, Y., Cheng, W., Chen, Z., He, Y., Liu, D., & Chen, Z. (2026) · International Journal of Information Technologies and Systems Approach · doi:10.4018/ijitsa.406761 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Elshall, A. S., Badir, A. M., & Gebremedhin, M. A. (2026) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2026.1834090 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
The DIPS model: GenAI integration in digital information problem solving by experts and novices
Boetje, J., de Graaf, Z., Wopereis, I., van Ginkel, S. O., Smakman, M. H. J., Versendaal, J., & Barendsen, E. (2026) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2026.105677 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Designing an AI assistant to support independent learning in first -and second-year students
Zakharov, A. A., Zakharova, I. G., Шабалин, А. М., & Nguyen, Q. H. (2026) · The Education and science journal · doi:10.17853/1994-5639-2026-6-163-200 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Song, F., & Xu, B. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1847432 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“The ease of generating content may reduce their motivation to explore problems deeply or evaluate solutions critically (Melisa et al., 2025).”
Teaching in the Age of AI: Exploring Faculty Perceptions and Practices
Nelson, K., Marshall, D. T., Manning, K. Q., & Hong, H. B. (2026) · AI in Education · doi:10.31219/osf.io/nqb84_v1 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
ChatGPT as a Metacognitive Catalyst in Personalized Learning EcosystemsPreprint
Gyekye, E. K. (2025) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-7339599/v1 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
From Assistance to Substitution: Generative AI and Undergraduate Research Skills
Rami Al Jundi, M., Abdulkareem Alali, B., Alothman, R., Almansour, A., & AL Zyadi, E. (2026) · Research Journal of Maaref University of Applied Sciences · doi:10.66422/rjmu.id.80
I Am vs. Ai - the Future Belongs to Agile MindsetsPreprint
Kucharska, W., & Kucharski, M. (2025) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.5378517
Artificial Intelligence (AI) Readiness of Business Management Students at a State University
Corpuz, J. T., Desepida, M. C. L., Feliciano, P. M., Corpuz, J. M. C. M., Cubacub, R. M. R., Cac, J. W. P., & Flores, K. F. C. (2025) · Advances in computational intelligence and robotics book series · doi:10.4018/979-8-3373-2302-2.ch005
Luo, Y. G., Liu, H., & Chen, E. (2025) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.5385927
Mbata, A. (2025) · Science Education and Innovations in the Context of Modern Problems · doi:10.56334/sei/8.8.72
Maanu, V., Boateng, F. O., & Larbi, E. (2025) · International Journal of Scientific Research and Modern Technology. · doi:10.38124/ijsrmt.v4i9.828 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Merino, M., & Duarte, S. R. (2025) · Advances in computational intelligence and robotics book series · doi:10.4018/979-8-3373-7574-8.ch004
A Commentary on Kiazad et al. (2025): Generative AI as a Tool to Generate Bullshit at Work
Kuljanin, G., & Lemmon, G. (2025) · Group & Organization Management · doi:10.1177/10596011251393082
“This kind of generic, average advice injects a corrosive mindlessness into the workplace environment wherein the use of generative AI increases the likelihood that individuals will fail to think deeply and critically (Bai et al., 2023; Larson et al., 2024; Melisa et al., 2025).”
Dehankar, P., Chaturvedi, K., & Das, S. (2025) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/979-8-3373-0928-6.ch014
Wissenschaftliches Schreiben und KI
Geyer, B., & Stampfl, R. (2025) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-48999-1_27
Kovalenko, I. (2025) · OPEN EDUCATIONAL E-ENVIRONMENT OF MODERN UNIVERSITY · doi:10.28925/2414-0325.2025.196
Mytra, P., Danial, D., & Qadrianti, L. (2025) · JTMT Journal Tadris Matematika · doi:10.47435/jtmt.v6i2.4116
Artificial Intelligence in Education
Ma, Q., Chai, M., Tan, Y., Choi, J., Kim, J., Harpstead, E., Kauffman, G., & Wu, T. (2026) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-29763-1 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Formación universitaria temprana en producción animal con ChatGPT: Efecto del perfil del estudiante
Machado, C. F., Iglesias, J. L., Tejedo, M. E., Williams, K., Nadin, L. B., & Rodriguez, M. (2025) · Archivos Latinoamericanos de Producción Animal · doi:10.53588/alpa.330206
Meyrambaykyzy, K. A., & Maratuly, A. A. (2025) · International Conference on Control, Automation and Systems (ICCAS) · doi:10.23919/iccas66577.2025.11301135
Elgammal, N., Fawzy, H. E., Elballat, B. A.-E., Braimoh, J. J., & eita, A. M. A. (2026) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2026.1737363
Designing Guidelines for Responsible GenAI Usage in Computer Science Education
Gorter, R. E. M., Offerman, T., & van der Meulen, A. (2025) · International Conference on Education Technology and Computer · doi:10.1109/icetc66579.2025.11387605
“First, over-reliance on GenAI can undermine critical thinking, problem-solving, and intrinsic motivation [5]–[7], [18].”
InfluentialThe Impact of ChatGPT on Language Assessment in ELT
Tüm, G. (2026) · Sınırsız Eğitim ve Araştırma Dergisi · doi:10.29250/sead.1753516
Active Learning in Engineering Education: A Case Study from a Digital Logic Design Course
Mansouri, M. (2026) · Applied Sciences · doi:10.3390/app16062880
Afdi, M. P. F., & Pangestu, H. (2026) · International Conference on Intelligent Sustainable Systems (ICISS) · doi:10.1109/iciss67859.2026.11454066
“…that the intensity level of GenAI usage holds no significant relationship with critical thinking improvement, yet GenAI usage that tends to be performed for evidence evaluation, such as confirming thoughts or comparing multiple perspectives, is proven to provide substantial benefits[26], [31].”
Ta, T. P., Nguyễn, V. Đ., Nguyễn, B. A., et al. (2026) · Tạp chí Nghiên cứu khoa học kiểm toán · doi:10.65771/ati-jas.03202608
Applications and Effectiveness of Generative AI (GAI) in Higher Education: A Systematic Review
Song, Z., Wang, W., Liu, W., Wu, M., & Lin, Q. (2026) · MIER Journal of Educational Studies Trends & Practices · doi:10.52634/mier/2026/v16/i1/3072 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“A more critical concern is the presence of significant methodological limitations in existing research (Melisa et al., 2025).”
Kamali, J., pour, R. A., Naderi, M., Afrasiabi, M., & Piri, F. (2026) · Asian-Pacific Journal of Second and Foreign Language Education · doi:10.1186/s40862-026-00403-x · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Indriani, F., Satrianawati, & Heldayanti (2026) · International Journal of Learning Reformation in Elementary Education · doi:10.56741/iistr.ijlree.001796
“…complex problems, making well-reasoned decisions, and formulating evidence-based conclusions [3]-[5] For this reason, nurturing critical thinking from the early years of schooling is essential to support independent learning, deeper reasoning, and reflective intellectual development [6]-[8].”
Does AI Dependency Hinder or Enhance Critical Thinking? Examining the Role of Self-Regulation
Buntaran, F. A. A., Irmawan, D., & Sabir, A. (2026) · Bulletin of Counseling and Psychotherapy · doi:10.51214/002026081616000
“AI can also assist students in AI-based learning related to the development of critical thinking, evaluation, and self-assessment among university students across disciplines (Melisa et al., 2025).”
Ndlovu, B. P., Khoza, H. C., & Sibanda, D. (2026) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2026.1811975 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
404 Meaning Not Found: The Pedagogy of Error in AI-Enhanced Learning
Andoniou, C. (2026) · International Conference on Integrated Intelligence and Cognitive Engineering (ICIICE) · doi:10.1109/iciice69672.2026.11565455
“Easy to assume it is also correct [4].”
The role of manipulative digital media texts in developing students' critical thinking
Nikolaeva, E., Kashurina, I. A., Savela, S., & Plotnikova, N. (2026) · Russian Journal of Education and Psychology · doi:10.12731/2658-4034-2026-17-1-978
Is AI Bad for Thought, or Does the Human Preference for Validation Make It That Way?Preprint
Hall, B. T., & Hart, W. (2026) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.6984562
Gao, L., Sun, Y., & Khan, S. U. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1847369 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
A framework for AI and vocational assessment in higher education
Balducci, B. (2026) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2026.1703130 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Love as Moral Telos: A Love-Based Ethical Framework for Artificial Intelligence
Machidon, O. M. (2026) · Journal of Media Ethics · doi:10.1080/23736992.2026.2699087
AI-powered student support: a conceptual paper on ethical AI in education
Νικολοπούλου, Κ. (2026) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2026.1801972
Bubaš, G. (2026) · MIPRO ICT and Electronics Convention (MIPRO) · doi:10.1109/mipro70003.2026.11591855
Yusriani, Y., & Yuyung, A. (2026) · ETDC Indonesian Journal of Research and Educational Review · doi:10.51574/ijrer.v5i4.5010
“…one systematic review reported that passive or excessive AI use could reduce independent reflection and constrain the depth of critical thinking (Melisa et al., 2025), and another study emphasized that the effectiveness of AI in developing critical thinking depends substantially on structured…”
Santos, M. S. M. D. (2026) · Diversitas Journal · doi:10.48017/dj.v11ispecial_2.3872
“This finding echoes broader literature on the persistent technology gap in Philippine higher education, where infrastructure limitations often hinder the scaling of AI-driven educational innovations (Gonzales & Nabua, 2025).”
Lernen mit KI – Krücke oder Sparringspartner?
Friederichs, H. (2026) · doi:10.59350/xtyzv-e5f66
Fishing for AI use in science education using modern knowledge of fishes
Schumacher, G. T., Murphy, C. A., & Kinnison, M. T. (2026) · Fisheries · doi:10.1093/fshmag/vuag044
Lernen mit KI – Krücke oder Sparringspartner?
Friederichs, H. (2026) · doi:10.59350/97g5z-p0v65
Leyme-Pilicita, K. E., Paucar-Jiménez, L. F., & Zambrano, M. F. G. (2026) · Innova Science Journal · doi:10.63618/omd/isj/v4/n3/390
“Resulta necesario el desarrollo de una síntesis sistemática que organice la evidencia disponible, distinga los tipos de efectos reportados, al mismo tiempo que delimite los vacíos de investigación aún existentes (Melisa et al., 2025; Nasr et al., 2025; Raitskaya & Tikhonova, 2025).”
Inteligencia artificial generativa y aprendizaje crítico en educación secundaria.
Calero-Mieles, V. M., Bermúdez, Á. E. G., & Barban-Forte, Y. (2024) · Revista de Investigación y Liderazgo · doi:10.63618/omd/revinvlid/v1/n1/10
“…consecuencia, el aprendizaje crítico requiere que los estudiantes comparen fuentes, identifiquen inconsistencias, justifiquen sus elecciones y reconozcan los límites de los sistemas generativos, en lugar de utilizarlos únicamente para obtener productos terminados (Melisa et al., 2025; Park, 2025).”
AI and the Future of Education in the Classroom
Billy, R. J. F., & Medina, C. (2026) · US-China Education Review A · doi:10.17265/2161-623x/2026.07.001
“The overreliance on ChatGPT may diminish analytical thinking skills and impact students’ cognitive abilities, particularly in critical thinking (as cited in Melisa et al., 2025).”
Maharaj, N. R., Saaiman, C. M. B., & Hagemeister, D. T. (2026) · Journal of the Colleges of Medicine of South Africa · doi:10.4102/jcmsa.v4i1.442
Chan, H. M., Yousef, K. M., Alananzeh, I. M., & Hatahet, S. (2026) · Nursing Reports · doi:10.3390/nursrep16100352
Emotional Intelligence and Practical Strategies to Enhance Human Skills in a Digital World
Irving-Walton, J. (2026) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/978-1-80686-247-420261013
Ragavan, J. (2026) · i-manager’s Journal on Educational Psychology · doi:10.26634/jet.23.1.1490
A transdisciplinary approach to industry and higher education
Woodside, J. M. (2026) · Industry and Higher Education · doi:10.1177/09504222261478210
Wang, X., Tian, S., & Wei, Y. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1865488
“…but does not always provide verifiable sources or distinguish between established facts and hypotheses, without explicit guidance, students may develop excessive trust in AI statements, undermining their habits of critical evaluation and evidence checking (Melisa et al., 2025; Ncube et al., 2026).”
Banga, C., Kincar, A., & Mustafa, H. (2026) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-9993353/v1
The Impact of AI Literacy Training on Engineering Creativity: An Empirical Study
Li, H., Deng, M., Yang, Y., & Fu, M. (2026) · International Conference on Computer Science and Technologies in Education (CSTE) · doi:10.1109/cste69562.2026.11649581
“Empirical evidence shows that without such regulation, students risk “metacognitive laziness” and illusory competence, advancing quickly on surface tasks while lacking deeper understanding or transferable skills [13][14].”
Work-In-Progress: Future of Computer Science Curriculum with A Holistic Design Approach
SINGH, R. (2026) · ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition · doi:10.18260/1-2--61053
Hanna, M. D. (2026) · Journal of Social Work Education · doi:10.1080/10437797.2026.2715940
Digtyar, O. Y., Кондрахина, Н. Г., Tantsura, T. A., et al. (2026) · The Education and science journal · doi:10.17853/1994-5639-2026-5311
Rethinking Epistemic Trust in the Use of AI in Education
BAYRAKLI, V. K., Demircioğlu, A., & Ertek, Z. (2026) · Advances in computational intelligence and robotics book series · doi:10.4018/979-8-2600-1232-1.ch002
A Correlational Study on AI Tool Usage and Critical Thinking Skills of College Students
Ferrer, B. E. P., Abad, M. I., Artates, A. G. F., Forbes, H. E., Nayga, M. T., & Bangga, D. (2026) · International Conference on Distance Education and Learning (ICDEL) · doi:10.1109/icdel70250.2026.11663799
“Studies suggest that AI can improve students’ critical and analytical thinking by broadening perspectives, facilitating information access, and supporting independent decision-making [3].”
InfluentialAn Empirical Study on the Impact of AI Use on Undergraduate Students' Critical Thinking
Chen, X., Li, Y., & Xuanyu, L. (2026) · Psychology and Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.11648/j.pbs.20261505.11
Qu, J., Dai, L., & Yin, M. (2026) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0356183
“Recent scholarship reflects a constructivist, process-oriented turn that emphasizes how students use LLMs, how interaction unfolds, and which interaction patterns are more conducive to cognitive development and knowledge construction [2,4,8–12].”
Al-Huda, Z., Abbasi, W. A., Rajeh, T. M., et al. (2026) · doi:10.1109/tile-tec70450.2026.11682686
“Recent bibliometric reviews confirm that the intersection of AI integration, critical thinking pedagogy, and TNE contexts remains underexplored [7], [8].”
- Authors
- Melisa, R., Ashadi, A., Triastuti, A., Hidayati, S., Salido, A., Ero, P. E. L., Marlini, C., Zefrin, Z., & Al Fuad, Z.
- Venue
- Educational Process International Journal
- Publisher
- Universitepark
- Published
- 2025
- Volume
- 14
- Issue
- 1
- ISSN
- 2147-0901 (ISSN-L)
- 2564-8020
- OpenAlex
- W4407030672
- Cited by
- 117
- References
- 58
- Citations by year
- 2026: 79 · 2025: 37 · 2024: 1
- FWCI
- 120.62
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- diamond
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by
- Locations
- Educational Process International Journal (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Information Systems › Artificial Intelligence in Education
- Social Sciences › Education › Education and Critical Thinking Development
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Information Systems › Digital Education and Society
- Keywords
- artificial intelligence in education, critical thinking, higher education, educational technology
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