The DOI matches its Crossref record; 26 of the 26 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Correlates, Causes, Effects, and Treatment of Test Anxiety
Abstract
Results of 562 studies were integrated by meta-analysis to show the nature, effects, and treatment of academic test anxiety. Effect sizes were computed through the method invented by Glass ( Glass, McGaw, & Smith, 1981 ). Correlations and effect-size groups were tested for consistency and significance with inferential statistics by Hedges and Olkin (1985) . Test anxiety (TA) causes poor performance. It relates inversely to students’ self-esteem and directly to their fears of negative evaluation, defensiveness, and other forms of anxiety. Conditions (causes) giving rise to differential TA levels include ability, gender, and school grade level. A variety of treatments are effective in reducing test anxiety. Contrary to prior perceptions, improved test performance and grade point average (GPA) consistently accompany TA reduction.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“Anxious individuals tend to experience anxiety in testing situations (39)”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [39]
In the citing paper
“Meta-analyses have consistently shown that test anxiety occurs at higher levels in women than in men (Hembree, 1988;von der Embse et al., 2018).”
From Impacts of Standards-Based Grading on Students’ Mindset and Test Anxiety (2022) · cites this paper as Hembree, 1988
In the citing paper
“Hancock (2001) and Hembree (1988) reported that negative cognitions related to examinations, when such students underestimate their own abilities, or overestimation of the consequences related to their failure, are often accompanied by higher anxiety levels and poor performance.”
From Examining perceptions of academic stress and its sources among university students: The Perception of Academic Stress Scale (2015) · cites this paper as Hembree, 1988
In the citing paper
“Like low motivation, test anxiety can significantly impair performance (Hembree [1988]).”
From Personality Psychology and Economics (2011) · cites this paper as Hembree [1988]
In the citing paper
“It is also known that test anxiety that emerges in evaluation environments has a negative effect on one ' s personal development, academic performance, and consequently career and business life (Hembree, 1988; McDonald, 2001; Putwain & Best, 2011; Sarason & Sarason, 1990; Topp, 1989; Y ı ld ı r ı m & Ergene, 2003).”
From Reducing Test Anxiety During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Comparison of the Effectiveness of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy and Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (2024) · cites this paper as Hembree, 1988
In the citing paper
“Specific to high-stakes test situations, scholars argue that mathematics anxiety seems to be an aspect of “situational specific psychological distress” rather than an aspect of “mathematics” (Hembree, 1988).”
From The influences of mindfulness on high-stakes mathematics test achievement of middle school students (2023) · cites this paper as Hembree, 1988
In the citing paper
“A comprehensive review found converging evidence of higher mathematics achievement usually accompanies a reduction in mathematics anxiety (Hembree, 1988).”
From The influences of mindfulness on high-stakes mathematics test achievement of middle school students (2023) · cites this paper as Hembree, 1988
Citations
Cites
Wasserman, S. S., Hedges, L. V., & Olkin, I. (1988) · Journal of Educational Statistics · doi:10.2307/1164953 · Cited by 10,377
Meta-analysis in social research
(1982) · Evaluation and Program Planning · doi:10.1016/0149-7189(82)90011-8 · Cited by 3,896
Statistical Analysis in Psychology and Education.
Smith, H., & Ferguson, G. A. (1967) · Journal of the American Statistical Association · doi:10.2307/2283699 · Cited by 2,221
Cognitive and Emotional Components of Test Anxiety: A Distinction and Some Initial Data
Liebert, R. M., & Morris, L. W. (1967) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.2466/pr0.1967.20.3.975 · Cited by 1,161
Spielberger, C. D. (1972) · Anxiety · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-657401-2.50009-5 · Cited by 1,102
A study of anxiety and learning.
Mandler, G., & Sarason, S. B. (1952) · Journal of Abnormal & Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0062855 · Cited by 1,074
Test anxiety and direction of attention
Wine, J. (1971) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/h0031332 · Cited by 1,055
Anxiety in academic achievement situations.
Alpert, R., & Haber, R. N. (1960) · Journal of Abnormal & Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0045464 · Cited by 1,049
Test anxiety : theory, research, and applications
Sarason, I. G. (1980) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 719
Anxiety in elementary school children: A report of research.
Sarason, S. B., Davidson, K. S., Lighthall, F. F., Waite, R. R., & Ruebush, B. K. (1960) · John Wiley & Sons, Inc. eBooks · doi:10.1037/14349-000 · Cited by 527
Research works printed but not linked: 7
- Denney D, 1980, Test anxiety: Theory, research, and applications, 209
- Hedges L, 1985, Statistical methods for meta-analysis
- Hembree R, 1987, A bibliography of research on academic test anxiety
- Hill K, 1972, The young child, 2, 225
- Sarason I, 1980, Test anxiety: Theory, research, and applications, 3
- Spielberger C, 1976, Emotion and anxiety: New concepts, methods, and applications, 317
- Wildemuth B, 1977, Test anxiety: An extensive bibliography
Cited by
Sorted by citations
The Role of Goal Orientation in Self-Regulated Learning
Pintrich, P. R. (2000) · Handbook of Self-Regulation · doi:10.1016/b978-012109890-2/50043-3 · Cited by 5,173
Pekrun, R., Goetz, T., Titz, W., & Perry, R. P. (2002) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1207/s15326985ep3702_4 · Cited by 3,931
“Consequently, test anxiety tends to correlate negatively with academic achievement at school and uni- versity (cf. Hembree, 1988; Zeidner, 1998).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialApproach and avoidance achievement goals and intrinsic motivation: A mediational analysis.
Elliot, A. J., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (1996) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.70.3.461 · Cited by 2,531
“…witnessed , particularly in investigations that (unlike the present experiments) allow maximum performance variability (Anderson & Sauser, 1995; Hembree, 1988), use cognitively demanding tasks (Birney et al., 1969; Sieber, O'Neill, & Tobias, 1977), and utilize longitudinal designs (Norem &…”
BackgroundResultPekrun, R., Goetz, T., Frenzel, A. C., Barchfeld, P., & Perry, R. P. (2011) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2010.10.002 · Cited by 2,248
“The advances in the measurement of test anxiety enabled researchers to successfully uncover the structures, functions, and origins of this emotion (for overviews, see Hembree, 1988; Zeidner, 1998, 2007).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialDual coding theory and education
Clark, J. M., & Paivio, A. (1991) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/bf01320076 · Cited by 2,445
“…preexisting semantic structures, but even when prior schemata are not available, comprehension processes construct an organized hierarchy of statements using linguistic cues to integrate sentences that vary in importance or centrality (e.g., Halliday and Hasan 1976; Kintsch and van Dijk, 1978).”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Hembree, R.
- Affiliations
- Adrian College (US)
- Corresponding author
- Hembree, Ray
- Venue
- Review of Educational Research
- Published
- 1988-03
- Volume
- 58
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 47-77
- ISSN
- 0034-6543 (ISSN-L)
- 1935-1046
- OpenAlex
- W2118425840
- Cited by
- 1,723
- References
- 26
- Citations by year
- 2026: 33 · 2025: 54 · 2024: 58 · 2023: 71 · 2022: 77 · 2021: 90 · 2020: 121 · 2019: 77 · 2018: 74 · 2017: 71 · 2016: 79 · 2015: 77 · 2014: 84 · 2013: 71 · 2012: 90
- FWCI
- 11.09
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Review of Educational Research (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Education, Achievement, and Giftedness
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Student Stress and Coping
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Keywords
- test anxiety, academic performance, self-esteem, fear of negative evaluation, defensiveness, anxiety, ability, gender differences, grade level, grade point average
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
How to cite
Cite CoChat for the checks on this page, and the paper for its own findings.
- This page
- CoChat. (2026). Citation check: Correlates, Causes, Effects, and Treatment of Test Anxiety. https://app.cochat.ai/papers/10.3102/00346543058001047
- The paper
- Hembree, R. (1988). Correlates, Causes, Effects, and Treatment of Test Anxiety. Review of Educational Research. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543058001047
