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Cited by 3,931Education, Achievement, and GiftednessInnovative Teaching and Learning MethodsEmotions and Moral Behavior

Academic Emotions in Students' Self-Regulated Learning and Achievement: A Program of Qualitative and Quantitative Research

Open access
Pekrun, Reinhard, Goetz, Thomas, Titz, Wolfram, Perry, Raymond P.·2002·Educational Psychologist
DOI 10.1207/s15326985ep3702_4
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Abstract

Academic emotions have largely been neglected by educational psychology, with the exception of test anxiety. In 5 qualitative studies, it was found that students experience a rich diversity of emotions in academic settings. Anxiety was reported most often, but overall, positive emotions were described no less frequently than negative emotions. Based on the studies in this article, taxonomies of different academic emotions and a self-report instrument measuring students' enjoyment, hope, pride, relief, anger, anxiety, shame, hopelessness, and boredom (Academic Emotions Questionnaire [AEQ]) were developed. Using the AEQ, assumptions of a cognitive-motivational model of the achievement effects of emotions, and of a control/value theory of their antecedents (Pekrun, 1992b, 2000), were tested in 7 cross-sectional, 3 longitudinal, and 1 diary study using samples of university and school students. Results showed that academic emotions are significantly related to students' motivation, learning strategies, cognitive resources, self-regulation, and academic achievement, as well as to personality and classroom antecedents. The findings indicate that affective research in educational psychology should acknowledge emotional diversity in academic settings by addressing the full range of emotions experienced by students at school and university.

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Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This paper reviews a program of qualitative and quantitative research on students’ academic emotions, develops the Academic Emotions Questionnaire (AEQ), and tests a cognitive-motivational model of emotion effects plus a control-value theory of their antecedents. It reports that academic emotions are diverse and significantly linked to motivation, learning strategies, cognitive resources, self-regulation, achievement, personality, and classroom/social antecedents.

Key findings

  • Across 5 qualitative studies, students reported a wide range of academic emotions; anxiety was reported most often, accounting for 15% to 25% of all emotions reported, but positive emotions were described about as often as negative emotions. Disgust was the only notable exception among major human emotions not reported.
  • The AEQ measured enjoyment, hope, pride, relief, anger, anxiety, shame, hopelessness, and boredom. Trait-scale reliabilities were satisfactory (e.g., learning-related enjoyment α = .90, anxiety α = .92, hopelessness α = .93, boredom α = .93); average reliabilities for short trait, course-related, and state versions were α = .87, .86, and .87, and English-language versions averaged α = .86.
  • In 7 cross-sectional, 3 longitudinal, and 1 diary study with university and school students, academic emotions related significantly to learning and achievement. For example, in N = 230 university students, enjoyment correlated with study interest r = .62, effort r = .43, elaboration r = .44, task-irrelevant thinking r = −.38, and self-regulated learning r = .43; boredom correlated with interest r = −.63, effort r = −.50, task-irrelevant thinking r = .72, and self-regulated learning r = −.21.
  • Longitudinal findings showed positive emotions such as enjoyment, hope, and pride predicted high achievement, while negative emotions predicted low achievement; hopelessness and boredom related more strongly to low achievement than anxiety, anger, and shame. Negative academic emotions also longitudinally predicted withdrawal from university courses and were elevated in students who dropped out.

Methods

  • The program combined 5 qualitative case studies using interviews and questionnaires about emotions in class, studying, and exams; two exam studies also used video reconstruction and physiological activation recordings. These data informed taxonomies of academic emotions and AEQ item construction.
  • Quantitative studies included 7 cross-sectional, 3 longitudinal, and 1 diary study using university and school students. The AEQ was administered in trait, course-related, and state versions; other measures included study interest, learning strategies, effort, task-irrelevant thinking, grades, and exam performance.
  • Analyses included confirmatory factor analysis and reliability estimation for the AEQ, correlational and longitudinal prediction analyses, idiographic intraindividual correlations in a diary study (N = 72 students, daily measurements over 6 weeks before and during final university exams), and tests of control-value interactions, such as in a statistics-course study.

Limitations

  • Stated: the quantitative field studies largely used cross-sectional or predictive designs, so they did not allow more precise inferences of causal relations.
  • Stated: assessment of students’ self-regulated learning, appraisals, and social environments focused on self-report scales, and the mediational assumptions of control-value theory had not yet been tested in more direct ways.
  • Evident from the text: the authors emphasize reciprocal causation between emotions, achievement, and environments, meaning directional findings should be interpreted cautiously; the reliance on self-report also leaves open shared-method variance and reverse-causation concerns.

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Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1207/s15326985ep3702_4

Cites

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Statistics

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Claims the paper makes

0 of 59 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data

    Different categories of discrete emotions appeared with differing frequencies, depending in part on the type of academic situation addressed.

    “Different categories of discrete emotions appeared with differing frequencies, depending in part on the type of academic situation addressed.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingcitation
    § Academic Emotions in Students' Self-Regulated Learning and Achievement: A Program of Qualitative and Quantitative Research

    There is a dearth of studies on students' regulation of their emotions.

    “Also, there is a dearth of studies on students' regulation of their emotions (cf.Schutz & Davis, 2000).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Schutz & Davis, 2000

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  • Findingown data

    Less frequently reported emotions included the social emotions of gratitude, admiration, contempt, and envy.

    “In addition, there were accounts of several less frequently reported emotions (e.g., the social emotions of gratitude, admiration, contempt, and envy).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Many participants' reports about boredom conformed to the expectation that boredom occurs when self-evaluations of abilities are high and instructional demands are low.

    “Many of our participants' reports about boredom conformed to this analysis: When self-evaluations of abilities were high and instructional demands low, students reported that they felt bored and daydreamed.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    There was virtually no major human emotion not reported by participants, with disgust being the only notable exception.

    “There was virtually no major human emotion not reported by our participants, disgust being the only notable exception.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 42
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 1
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 14

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    Findingown data

    Measures of emotional intensity based on qualitative reports about emotions during an important exam were systematically related to cortisol levels before and after the exam, whereas questionnaire-based measures showed a much less consistent pattern.

    “It is interesting that measures of emotional intensity based on our participants' qualitative reports about their emotions experienced during an important exam were systematically related to cortisol levels before and after the exam, whereas questionnaire-based measures showed a much less consistent pattern.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § Academic Emotions in Students' Self-Regulated Learning and Achievement: A Program of Qualitative and Quantitative Research

    In the literature from 1974 to 2000, test anxiety has continued to attract many researchers, whereas other achievement-related emotions have received much less attention.

    “It appears that test anxiety has continued to attract many researchers, whereas other achievement-related emotions have received much less attention.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Anxiety was mentioned most often not only in relation to taking exams, but also with reference to being in class or studying at home.

    “Anxiety was mentioned most often not only in relation to taking exams, but also with reference to being in class or studying at home.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

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    Findingown data

    Hopelessness was reported less often, but some accounts involved personal tragedies including suicidal ideation relating to failing academic exams.

    “Hopelessness was also reported less often, but some accounts of this emotion involved reports about personal tragedies including suicidal ideation relating to failing academic exams.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § Academic Emotions in Students' Self-Regulated Learning and Achievement: A Program of Qualitative and Quantitative Research

    More than 1,000 studies have addressed achievement-related anxiety to date, whereas no more than 9 studies on students' hope were located.

    “whereas more than 1,000 studies have addressed achievement-related anxiety to date, we were not able to locate more than 9 studies on the complementary emotion of students' hope.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Findingown data

    Aside from anxiety, the emotions reported most often were enjoyment of learning, hope, pride, and relief, as well as anger, boredom, and shame.

    “Aside from anxiety, emotions reported most often were enjoyment of learning, hope, pride, and relief, as well as anger, boredom, and shame.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    A sizable number of other students experienced boredom when feeling unable to keep up with demands, implying boredom was connected to low self-evaluations of abilities and high evaluations of demands.

    “However, a sizable number of other students told us that they had experienced boredom when feeling unable to keep up with demands, implying that boredom was connected to low self-evaluations of abilities and high evaluations of demands.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § Academic Emotions in Students' Self-Regulated Learning and Achievement: A Program of Qualitative and Quantitative Research

    Most studies on achievement emotions were conducted from specific research traditions and addressed no more than one or two emotions, implying a broader perspective on a range of emotions was largely lacking.

    “Most studies were conducted from the perspective of specific traditions of research and addressed no more than one or two emotions, implying that a broader perspective on a range of emotions was largely lacking in much of the empirical research to date.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Findingown data

    Problem-focused as well as emotion-oriented coping during the exam were negatively related to cortisol levels, implying that coping had reduced physiological activation.

    “whereas problem-focused as well as emotion-oriented coping during the exam were negatively related to cortisol levels, implying that coping had reduced physiological activation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Findingown data

    Anxiety during an exam was positively related to postexam cortisol levels, indicating physiological activation during the exam.

    “Specifically, anxiety during an exam was positively related to postexam cortisol levels indicating physiological activation during the exam”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Findingown data

    Relations between academic emotions and learning/achievement variables were similar for university and secondary school students and for trait and state measures of emotions and learning.

    “These relations proved to be rather similar for university and secondary school students and for trait and state measures of emotions and learning.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Findingown data

    In some scales, such as test anxiety, items relating to affective, cognitive, physiological, and motivational components separated; in others, such as boredom and hopelessness, they showed less differentiation.

    “Specifically, whereas items relating to affective, cognitive, physiological, and motivational components separated in some scales (e.g., in the test anxiety scale), they showed less differentiation in others (e.g., in the boredom and hopelessness scales).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

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    Findingcitation

    Correlations for anger, anxiety, and shame were lower than for other emotions, and in some studies coefficients for anxiety and self-reported academic effort were essentially zero.

    “However, correlations for these emotions were lower, and in some of our studies, the coefficients for anxiety and self-reported academic effort were essentially zero (cf.Pekrun & Hofmann, 1999).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Pekrun & Hofmann, 1999

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    Findingown data

    For test-related relief, correlations with motivational variables were less consistent and close to zero.

    “For test-related relief, correlations were less consistent and close to zero.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

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    Findingown data

    Four clusters of emotions emerged: (a) enjoyment, hope, and pride; (b) relief; (c) anxiety, shame, and hopelessness; and (d) anger and boredom.

    “four clusters of emotions emerged: (a) enjoyment, hope, and pride; (b) relief; (c) anxiety, shame, and hopelessness; and (d) anger and boredom.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Findingown data

    Relations between negative emotions and flexible learning strategies were negative but weaker and less consistent.

    “Relations between negative emotions and flexible learning strategies were negative but weaker and less consistent.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Findingown data

    Learning-related and class-related emotions correlated moderately with their respective counterparts relating to tests (average r = .58), whereas correlations of learning-related versus class-related emotions were somewhat higher (average r = .64).

    “Learning-related and class-related emotions correlated moderately with their respective counterparts relating to tests (average r = .58),whereas correlations of learning-related versus class-related emotions were somewhat higher (average r = .64).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § Academic Emotions in Students' Self-Regulated Learning and Achievement: A Program of Qualitative and Quantitative Research

    Academic emotions are significantly related to students' motivation, learning strategies, cognitive resources, self-regulation, and academic achievement, as well as to personality and classroom antecedents.

    “Results showed that academic emotions are significantly related to students' motivation, learning strategies, cognitive resources, self-regulation, and academic achievement, as well as to personality and classroom antecedents.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Correlations between the emotion clusters were low to moderate, whereas within-cluster correlations were higher, although well below the respective reliabilities in each case.

    “Correlations between these clusters were low to moderate, whereas within-cluster correlations were higher, although well below the respective reliabilities in each case.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Findingcitation

    Students' anxiety correlated negatively with intrinsic and overall extrinsic motivation but positively with extrinsic avoidance motivation.

    “For example, it turned out that students' anxiety correlated negatively with intrinsic as well as overall extrinsic motivation but positively with extrinsic avoidance motivation (i.e., motivation to invest effort to avoid failures; Pekrun & Hofmann, 1999).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Pekrun & Hofmann, 1999

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    Findingown data

    Anxiety correlated negatively with motivation to learn for some students and positively with motivation for others.

    “For example, whereas anxiety correlated negatively with motivation to learn for some students, it correlated positively with motivation for others (see Figure 1).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Findingnone given

    With the exception of relief, positive emotions such as academic enjoyment, hope, and pride predicted high achievement, and negative emotions predicted low achievement.

    “With the exception of relief, positive emotions such as academic enjoyment, hope, and pride predicted high achievement, and negative emotions predicted low achievement.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    For many emotions, synchronous and time-lagged relations with variables of learning were similar for all individuals in the sample and equivalent to the respective interindividual correlations.

    “One main result was that for many emotions, synchronous and time-lagged relations with variables of learning were similar for all individuals in the sample and equivalent to the respective interindividual correlations, thus implying functional homogeneity across persons.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Positive academic emotions correlated positively with perceived self-regulation, and negative academic emotions correlated positively with perceived external regulation.

    “There were significantly positive correlations between positive academic emotions and perceived self-regulation and between negative academic emotions and perceived external regulation (see Table 4).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Academic emotions are closely tied to students' self-appraisals of competence and control in the academic domain, to the values and goals they attach to learning and achievement, and to classroom instruction and social environments affecting control, values, and goals.

    “Findings imply that academic emotions are closely tied to students' self-appraisals of competence and control in the academic domain, to the values and goals they attach to learning and achievement, and to classroom instruction and social environments affecting control, values, and goals.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Environmental factors of specific importance are those that influence students' control- and value-related appraisals initially.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Subjective control and values mediate the impact of specific instructional and social settings on academic emotions.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Positive emotions are sometimes detrimental and negative emotions such as anxiety and shame beneficial.

    “In so doing, simplistic conceptions of negative emotions as bad and positive emotions as being good should be avoided because positive emotions are sometimes detrimental and negative emotions such as anxiety and shame beneficial.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

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    Findingown data

    In our field studies, teacher enthusiasm; achievement pressure; competition versus cooperation; feedback of achievement; and social reactions to achievement by teachers, parents, and peers, as well as competition, cooperation, and affiliation within the classroom significantly related to secondary school and university students' enjoyment of learning and hope for success, as well as to their anger

    “In our field studies, we found that teacher enthusiasm; achievement pressure; competition versus cooperation; feedback of achievement; and social reactions to achievement by teachers, parents, and peers, as well as competition, cooperation, and affiliation within the classroom significantly related to secondary school and university students' enjoyment of learning and hope for success”
    • Also stated in: § Classroom Instruction, Social Environments, and Academic Emotions · plain
      “as well as to their anger, anxiety, hopelessness, and boredom (including cross-sectional correlations and longitudinal prediction; e.g., Pekrun, 1998Pekrun, , 2000;;Pekrun et al., 2000).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Pekrun, 1998

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    • cites Pekrun, 2000

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    • cites Pekrun et al., 2000

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    Findingcitation

    Enjoyment originating from statistics was high when both statistics-related control and the subjective value of this domain were high, and low when either control or value, or both, were low.

    “For example, enjoyment originating from statistics was high when both statistics-related control and the subjective value of this domain were high, and low when either control or value, or both, were low.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Barrera, 2001

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  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Contemporary test anxiety scales containing worry items may measure shame or hopelessness in addition to anxiety, making it necessary to reinterpret much of the empirical evidence gathered using them.

    “In this regard, contemporary test anxiety scales containing worry items (cf.Hodapp & Benson, 1997;Sarason, 1984) may measure shame or hopelessness in addition to anxiety, thus making it necessary to reinterpret much of the empirical evidence gathered using them.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Hodapp & Benson, 1997

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    • cites Sarason, 1984

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    Interpretationreasoning

    It may be difficult to measure different emotions in nonoverlapping ways, making it difficult to ensure discriminant validity of these measures.

    “One general implication is that it may be difficult to measure different emotions in nonoverlapping ways, making it difficult to ensure discriminant validity of these measures.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Interpretationown data

    In some students, anger about being anxious helped them find ways to cope with the anxiety, implying meta-emotions may facilitate coping with negative emotions.

    “In some of these students, this anger helped them to find ways to cope with the anxiety, thus implying that meta-emotions may facilitate students' coping with negative emotions”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Today, there are dozens of scales assessing test anxiety.

    “Today, there are dozens of scales assessing this single emotion (cf.Hodapp & Benson, 1997;Zeidner, 1998).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Hodapp & Benson, 1997

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    • cites Zeidner, 1998

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    Premisecitation
    § Academic Emotions in Students' Self-Regulated Learning and Achievement: A Program of Qualitative and Quantitative Research

    Test anxiety has been researched extensively since the beginning of the 1950s and even prior to that.

    “we have found that test anxiety has been researched extensively since the beginning of the 1950s (Mandler & Sarason, 1952) and even prior to that (cf.Stengel, 1936)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Mandler & Sarason, 1952

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    • cites Stengel, 1936

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    Premisecitation

    Motivational components are not represented by recent test anxiety scales, although they have been included in items of early instruments such as the Test Anxiety Questionnaire.

    “Motivational components are not represented by recent test anxiety scales, although they have been included in items of early instruments such as the Test Anxiety Questionnaire (Mandler & Sarason, 1952).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Mandler & Sarason, 1952

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    Premisenone given

    Rating scales based on single items may be economic and useful under specific experimental circumstances but may lack reliability and cannot adequately represent the detailed internal structures of academic emotions.

    “Rating scales based on single items, on the other hand, may be economic and useful under specific experimental circumstances but may lack reliability and cannot adequately represent the detailed internal structures of academic emotions.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Premisecitation

    Measures of general emotions are removed from the academic domain and probably less predictive for academic achievement than more domain-specific scales.

    “Measures of general emotions, however, are removed from the academic domain and probably less predictive for academic achievement than more domain-specific scales.”
    • Also stated in: § QUANTITATIVE MEASUREMENT: THE AEQ · plain
      “For example, general trait anxiety correlates less with students' achievement than their test anxiety (Hembree, 1988).”
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    • cites Hembree, 1988

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    Interpretationreasoning

    This danger may apply to test anxiety research and to traditional conceptions of hope, fear, pride, and shame as relating to achievement motivation.

    “For example, this may apply to test anxiety research and to traditional conceptions of hope, fear, pride, and shame as relating to achievement motivation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Premisecitation

    Previous research on academic emotions beyond anxiety used general measures of emotions not tailored to the academic domain or sets of single rating scales assessing various emotions following success and failure.

    “Previous research on academic emotions beyond anxiety used general measures of emotions not tailored to the academic domain or sets of single rating scales assessing various emotions following success and failure (cf.Weiner, 1985).”
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    • cites Weiner, 1985

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    Premisecitation

    Students' anger may be characterized by task frustration combined with higher levels of subjective control, as well as high values of outperforming others.

    “Students' anger, on the other hand, may be characterized by task frustration combined with higher levels of subjective control, as well as high values of outperforming others (high need to win; Rhodewalt & Morf, 1998).”
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    • cites Rhodewalt & Morf, 1998

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    Premisecitation

    Mood may produce task-irrelevant thinking that may be detrimental for task performance.

    “Finally, it has been shown that mood may produce task-irrelevant thinking that may be detrimental for task performance (cf.Ellis & Ashbrook, 1988;Meinhardt & Pekrun, in press).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Ellis & Ashbrook, 1988

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    • cites Meinhardt & Pekrun, in press

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    Premisenone given

    Negative mood may enhance more focused, detail-oriented, analytical, and algorithmic modes of processing information.

    “In contrast, negative mood may enhance more focused, detail-oriented, analytical, and algorithmic modes of processing information.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Positive mood may facilitate holistic, intuitive, and creative ways of solving problems, as well as an optimistic reliance on generalized knowledge structures.

    “Positive mood may facilitate holistic, intuitive, and creative ways of solving problems, as well as an optimistic reliance on generalized knowledge structures (e.g., Bless et al., 1996).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bless et al., 1996

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    Premisecitation

    Positive and negative mood can enhance mood-congruent memory processes by mechanisms of state-dependent learning and mood-congruent recall.

    “One well-known result is that positive and negative mood can enhance mood-congruent memory processes by mechanisms of state-dependent learning and mood-congruent recall (e.g., Levine & Burgess, 1997).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Levine & Burgess, 1997

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Control-related and value-related appraisals are main sources of students' academic emotions.

    “The theory holds that control-related and value-related appraisals are main sources of students' academic emotions.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Pekrun, 1998

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    • cites Pekrun, 2000

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    Premisecitation

    Internal attributions of success may be important for positive achievement-related emotions and other person-directed emotions.

    “Concerning students' positive emotions, however, evidence on antecedents is largely lacking, with the exception of attributional studies showing that internal attributions of success may be important for positive achievement-related emotions (Weiner, 1985) and other person-directed emotions (Weiner, 1995).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Weiner, 1985

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    • cites Weiner, 1995

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    Premisecitation

    Negative self-concepts and achievement-related expectancies, as well as a helpless attributional style, may be important for test anxiety and students' hopelessness.

    “Specifically, it has been shown that negative self-concepts and achievement-related expectancies, as well as a helpless attributional style, may be important for test anxiety and students' hopelessness (Abela & Seligman, 2000;Hembree, 1988).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Abela & Seligman, 2000

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    • cites Hembree, 1988

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    Interpretationreasoning

    The near-zero correlations between support and test anxiety may be due to negative feedback loops implying that support alleviates students' anxiety but is initially triggered by students' expression of anxiety.

    “This may well be due to negative feedback loops implying that support alleviates students' anxiety (negative effect of support on the level of anxiety) but is initially triggered by students' expression of anxiety (positive effect of anxiety on support).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Emotions affect students' achievement, but feedback of achievement and related experiences of success and failure can in turn influence students' emotions.

    “First, emotions affect students' achievement, but feedback of achievement and related experiences of success and failure can in turn influence students' emotions and may in fact be a major source of human affective development today.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    The assessment of students' self-regulated learning, and of variables of appraisals and social environments, has focused on self-report scales in our studies to date.

    “In addition, the assessment of students' self-regulated learning, and of variables of appraisals and social environments, has focused on self-report scales in our studies to date.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Classroom instruction and social environments can induce academic emotions in students, but students' emotions can influence instruction, environments, and the behavior of significant others.

    “Second, classroom instruction and social environments can induce academic emotions in students, but students' emotions can influence instruction, environments, and the behavior of significant others.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Environmental factors of specific importance are those that influence students' control- and value-related appraisals initially.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Subjective control and values mediate the impact of specific instructional and social settings on academic emotions.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Reciprocal linkages of emotions and achievement may be characteristic both of short-term causation from one exam to the next and of long-term affective development over the life span.

    “Reciprocal linkages of emotions and achievement may be characteristic both of short-term causation from one exam to the next and of long-term affective development over the life span.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Reciprocal linkages may take different forms, including both positive and negative feedback loops.

    “Theoretically, such reciprocal linkages may take different forms, including both positive and negative feedback loops.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The gap between high- and low-achieving students tends to widen throughout the school years.

    “which might also be one of the reasons why the gap between highand low-achieving students tends to widen throughout the school years (e.g., Weinert & Helmke, 1997).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Weinert & Helmke, 1997

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisecitation

    Test anxiety studies have shown that high achievement expectancies, pressure for achievement, classroom competition, feedback of failure, and punishment after failure correlate with students' achievement-related anxiety.

    “In line with these assumptions, test anxiety studies have shown that high achievement expectancies, pressure for achievement, classroom competition, feedback of failure, and punishment after failure correlate with students' achievement-related anxiety.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
54 of 54

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Being in class, studying outside of class, and taking tests and exams are the three most important types of academic situations at school and university.

    “Regarding academic situations, being in class, studying outside of class, and taking tests and exams are the three most important types of academic situations at school and university.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The two dimensions of valence and activation are basic determinants of many effects of emotions.

    “because the two dimensions of valence and activation may be regarded as basic determinants of many effects of emotions”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Emotions influence students' cognitive processes and performance, as well as their psychological and physical health.

    “Furthermore, judging from the general functions of emotions for human agency, it may be assumed that emotions influence students' cognitive processes and performance, as well as their psychological and physical health.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Academic emotions can be assumed to affect students' learning, achievement, and health.

    “we decided to develop scales for a limited set of emotions that may be important in many academic situations and that can be assumed to affect students' learning, achievement, and health.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Affective, cognitive, physiological, and motivational component processes are the most important components of emotions.

    “Affective, cognitive, physiological, and motivational component processes may be the most important”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The effects of emotions on learning and achievement are mediated by cognitive and motivational mechanisms, primarily motivation, learning strategies, cognitive resources, and self-regulation.

    “In a cognitive-motivational model (Pekrun, 1992c), it is assumed that the effects of emotions on learning and achievement are mediated by a number of cognitive and motivational mechanisms.Of primary importance should be mediation by students' motivation to learn, strategies of learning, cognitive resources, and self-regulation of learning.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Activation is a second dimension of emotions no less important than valence for performance effects.

    “In our cognitive-motivational model, it is assumed that a second traditional dimension of emotions is no less important, namely activation.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Positive activating emotions such as enjoyment of learning generally enhance academic motivation.

    “In this way, positive activating emotions such as enjoyment of learning may generally enhance academic motivation, whereas negative deactivating emotions may just be detrimental (e.g., hopelessness, boredom).”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Negative deactivating emotions such as hopelessness and boredom are detrimental to academic motivation.

    “In this way, positive activating emotions such as enjoyment of learning may generally enhance academic motivation, whereas negative deactivating emotions may just be detrimental (e.g., hopelessness, boredom).”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Positive deactivating emotions can deactivate immediate motivation to continue academic work, facilitating disengagement, but can also reinforce motivation for the next stage of learning.

    “Positive emotions such as relief or relaxation can deactivate any immediate motivation to continue academic work, thus facilitating disengagement.However, being positive emotions, they can also serve as reinforcers strengthening motivation for the next stage of learning.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Negative activating emotions can reduce intrinsic motivation because negative emotions tend to be incompatible with enjoyment.

    “Anger, anxiety, and shame can be assumed to reduce intrinsic motivation, because negative emotions tend to be incompatible with enjoyment as implied by interest and intrinsic motivation.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Negative activating emotions can induce strong motivation to cope with negative events, strengthening specific kinds of extrinsic motivation.

    “On the other hand, it follows from their activating nature that these emotions can induce strong motivation to cope with the negative events that caused them, thus strengthening specific kinds of extrinsic motivation.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Positive academic emotions facilitate flexible, creative learning strategies such as elaboration, organization, critical evaluation, and metacognitive monitoring.

    “Extrapolating from the aforementioned research on mood and problem solving, it may be assumed that positive academic emotions facilitate the use of flexible, creative learning strategies such as elaboration, organization, critical evaluation, and metacognitive monitoring.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Negative emotions trigger more rigid strategies such as simple rehearsal and reliance on algorithmic procedures.

    “Negative emotions, on the other hand, may trigger the use of more rigid strategies, such as simple rehearsal and reliance on algorithmic procedures.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Effects of emotions on learning strategies are stronger in activating than in deactivating emotions.

    “These effects should be stronger in activating than in deactivating emotions.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Positive intrinsic emotions direct attention toward the task, directly facilitating learning and performance.

    “Positive intrinsic emotions may be assumed to direct attention toward the task, thus directly facilitating learning and performance.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Negative emotions motivate students to rely on external guidance.

    “Negative emotions, on the other hand, may be assumed to motivate students to rely on external guidance.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Positive activating emotions affect achievement positively by strengthening motivation and enhancing flexible learning.

    “Generally, positive activating emotions may be assumed to affect achievement positively by strengthening motivation and enhancing flexible learning.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Negative deactivating emotions are generally detrimental to achievement because they erode motivation, direct attention away from the task, and make processing of task-related information shallow and superficial.

    “In contrast, negative deactivating emotions (e.g., boredom, hopelessness) may generally be detrimental because they erode motivation, direct attention away from the task and make any processing of task-related information shallow and superficial.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The effects of positive deactivating and negative activating emotions on achievement are equivocal.

    “The effects of positive deactivating as well as negative activating emotions, on the other hand, may be equivocal.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Negative activating emotions may impair achievement by reducing intrinsic motivation and producing task-irrelevant thinking, but may also benefit achievement by strengthening extrinsic motivation.

    “Negative activating emotions such as anger and anxiety may impair achievement by reducing intrinsic motivation and producing task-irrelevant thinking, but they may also benefit achievement by strengthening extrinsic motivation.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Beneficial effects of negative activating emotions occur when positive overall expectancies are held and learning does not require too much cognitive flexibility.

    “Specifically, such beneficial effects may occur when positive overall expectancies are held, and when learning does not require too much cognitive flexibility, but can draw on rehearsal strategies and algorithmic procedures instead.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Emotions, learning, and achievement are linked by reciprocal causation.

    “Rather, it may be assumed that emotions, learning, and achievement are linked by reciprocal causation, with students' emotions influencing achievement, but feedback of achievement in turn affecting their emotions (see section on reciprocal linkages).”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    For most academic emotions, both control and values are necessary antecedents.

    “In addition, intrinsic and extrinsic values and goals relating to academic learning and its outcomes are assumed to be important, interacting with control in such ways that, for most academic emotions, both control and values are necessary antecedents.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Learning-related enjoyment presupposes that the student has a sense of being able to master the material and intrinsically values the material.

    “For example, it is assumed that learning-related enjoyment presupposes that the student has a sense of being able to master the material (high control) and intrinsically values the material (high interest).”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Anxiety is triggered when expectations imply possible failure, on condition that achievement goals are of some subjective value.

    “Anxiety is assumed to be triggered when expectations imply possible failure, on condition that achievement goals are of some subjective value (intrinsically relating to failures themselves or extrinsically to their consequences).”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Environmental factors of specific importance are those that influence students' control- and value-related appraisals initially.

    “Specifically, in line with social cognitive perspectives on human development, the model assumes that environmental factors of specific importance are those that influence students' control-and value-related appraisals initially, implying that subjective control and values mediate the impact of specific settings.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Subjective control and values mediate the impact of specific instructional and social settings on academic emotions.

    “Specifically, in line with social cognitive perspectives on human development, the model assumes that environmental factors of specific importance are those that influence students' control-and value-related appraisals initially, implying that subjective control and values mediate the impact of specific settings.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Evidence beyond test anxiety is scarce.

    “Again, evidence beyond test anxiety is scarce.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Empirical evidence on reciprocal linkages of academic emotions is scarce.

    “Empirical evidence on reciprocal linkages of academic emotions is scarce.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    For academic emotions other than test anxiety, evidence is largely lacking.

    “For academic emotions other than test anxiety, however, evidence is largely lacking.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Research on students' affective life has focused on test anxiety and has generally been biased toward negative emotions.

    “To date, research on students' affective life has focused on test anxiety and has generally been biased toward negative emotions.”
32 of 32

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • Heightened stress and anxiety correlates inversely to learning gains, so reducing frustration may aid students significantly in learning the data interpretation skills that are central to evaluating research papers.

    “Given that heightened stress and anxiety correlates inversely to learning gains (Pekrun et al., 2002), reducing frustration may aid students significantly in learning the data interpretation skills that are central to evaluating research papers.”

    From Figure Facts: Encouraging Undergraduates to Take a Data-Centered Approach to Reading Primary Literature (2013) · cites this paper as Pekrun et al., 2002

    The ‘Academic achievement’ passage reports that negative emotions, including anxiety, predicted lower grades and exam scores. But the cited evidence concerns achievement rather than measured learning gains, and it does not establish the claimed inverse relationship for stress. The suggestion about reducing frustration is the citing authors’ inference, not part of the cited clause. (LLM, conf=0.84)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • All practice-induced changes tend to be stronger when the practice is embraced with emotional inclination and verve.

    “This makes sense, as all practice-induced changes tend to be stronger, when the practice is embraced with emotional inclination and verve (Pekrun et al., 2002; Hu et al., 2007).”

    From Differential changes in self-reported aspects of interoceptive awareness through 3 months of contemplative training (2015) · cites this paper as Pekrun et al., 2002

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 8

  1. Hatfield, E., Cacioppo, J. T., & Rapson, R. L. (1994). Emotional contagion. New York: Cambridge University Press.
  2. Pekrun, R., & Frese, M. (1992). Emotions in work and achievement. In C. L. Cooper & I. T. Robertson (Eds.), International review of industrial and organizational psychology (Vol. 7, pp. 153-200). Chichester, England: Wiley.
  3. Pekrun, R., Hochstadt, M., & Kramer, K. (1996). Prüfungsemotionen, Lernen und Leistung [Test emotions, learning, and achievement]. In C. Spiel, U. Kastner-Koller, & P. Deimann (Eds.), Motivation und Lernen aus der Perspektive lebenslanger Entwicklung (pp. 151-162). Münster, Germany: Waxmann.
  4. Pekrun, R., & Hofmann, H. (1999). Lern-und Leistungsemotionen: Erste Befunde eines Forschungsprogramms [Emotions in learning and achievement: First results of a program of research]. In R. Pekrun & M. Jerusalem (Eds.), Emotion, Motivation und Leistung (pp. 247-267). Göttingen, Germany: Hogrefe.
  5. Perry, R. P. (1991). Perceived control in college students: Implications for in- struction in higher education. In J. Smart (Ed.), Higher education: Handbook of theory and research (Vol. 7, pp. 1-56). New York: Agathon.
  6. Scherer, K. R. (1984). On the nature and function of emotion: A compo- nent process approach. In K. R. Scherer & P. Ekman (Eds.), Ap- proaches to emotion (pp. 293-317). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
  7. Weinert, F. E., & Helmke, A. (Eds.). (1997). Entwicklung im Grundschulalter [Development in elementary school children]. Weinheim, Germany: Beltz.
  8. Ziegler, C. (2001). Analysis of emotions, personality variables, social envi- ronments, and drop-out rates in university students. Unpublished mas- ter's thesis, University of Munich, Munich, Germany.

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Pekrun, R., Goetz, T., Titz, W., & Perry, R. P.
Affiliations
  • Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (DE)
  • University of Manitoba (CA)
ORCID
Venue
Educational Psychologist
Publisher
Informa UK Limited
Published
2002-01-01
Volume
37
Issue
2
Pages
91-105
ISSN
  • 0046-1520 (ISSN-L)
  • 1532-6985
DOI
10.1207/s15326985ep3702_4
OpenAlex
W2063898208
Semantic Scholar
4feff4cc6681b9bd10fc6176acd7a7ffce8c7607
Cited by
3,931
References
47
Citations by year
2026: 249 · 2025: 352 · 2024: 315 · 2023: 347 · 2022: 264 · 2021: 273 · 2020: 257 · 2019: 232 · 2018: 211 · 2017: 212 · 2016: 190 · 2015: 162 · 2014: 145 · 2013: 146 · 2012: 119
FWCI
26.72
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Locations
  • Educational Psychologist (publishedVersion)
  • KOPS (University of Konstanz) (submittedVersion)
Funders
Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Education, Achievement, and Giftedness
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Emotions and Moral Behavior
Keywords
academic emotions, student self-regulation, academic performance, anxiety, boredom, hope, shame, motivation, learning strategies, cognitive resources, control-value theory, emotional diversity, university students, school students

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