Correlates, Causes, Effects, and Treatment of Test Anxiety

“Consequently, test anxiety tends to correlate negatively with academic achievement at school and uni- versity (cf. Hembree, 1988; Zeidner, 1998).”

“…witnessed , particularly in investigations that (unlike the present experiments) allow maximum performance variability (Anderson & Sauser, 1995; Hembree, 1988), use cognitively demanding tasks (Birney et al., 1969; Sieber, O'Neill, & Tobias, 1977), and utilize longitudinal designs (Norem &…”

“The advances in the measurement of test anxiety enabled researchers to successfully uncover the structures, functions, and origins of this emotion (for overviews, see Hembree, 1988; Zeidner, 1998, 2007).”

“…preexisting semantic structures, but even when prior schemata are not available, comprehension processes construct an organized hierarchy of statements using linguistic cues to integrate sentences that vary in importance or centrality (e.g., Halliday and Hasan 1976; Kintsch and van Dijk, 1978).”

“phy is present in Hembree (1988b). The distribution of studies performed at each grade level 1 through 12 and postsecondary (P) is shown in Table 1.”

“For example, meta-analytic reviews have demonstrated that interventions can reduce anxiety (Hembree, 1988), and improve study skills (Hattie, Biggs, & Purdie, 1996) as well as social and personal skills (Durlak, Weissberg, & Pachan, 2010).”

“In contrast, Hembree (1988) suggested that test anxiety was primarily a behavioral phenomenon since behavior modification techniques reduced test anxiety only when the emotionality component was targeted.”

“Nevertheless, the overall influence of these emotions on performance is likely to be negative, as suggested by the available evidence (Hembree, 1988; Zeidner, 2007).”

“With regard to emotions in achievement settings, test anxiety has been examined in more than 1,000 studies to date (Hembree, 1988; Zeidner, 1998, 2007).”

“Research in this area is well advanced and Jarvis and Quick (1995) argue that the mathematics of the process should be such that "ensuring a good team performance brings more reward than trying to outdo one's team-mates at the expense of team performance" (p.”

“29 between test anxiety and academic aptitude or achievement (Hembree, 1988).”

“Instead, they show a reduction in the range of physiological variab lity, leading Hoehn-Saric and colleagues (Hoehn-Saric & McLeod, 1988; Hoehn-Saric, McLeod, & Zimmerli, 1989) to conclude that they are chronically in a state of sympathetic inhibition.”

“Anxiety, hopelessness, and shame, on the other hand, should result from low eompetenee beliefs, eombined with high values of aehievement (Abela & Seligman, 2000; Hembree, 1988; Pekrun, 1992).”

“Consistent with this claim, students who are math anxious report taking fewer math courses (Ashcraft & Kirk, 2001; Hembree, 1988; LeFevre, Kulak, & Heymans, 1992), and math anxiety among adolescent students has traditionally been related to less intent to take math courses (J.”

“…most frequently reported factors contributing to stress and anxiety around the examination periods were extensive course loads, lack of physical exercise, and long duration of exams, reported by the students (Harikiran et al., 2012; Hashmat et al., 2008; Sansgiry and Sail, 2006; Shah et al., 2010).”

“Like low motivation, test anxiety can significantly impair performance (Hembree, 1988).”

“…1989; Benson & Bandalos, 1989; Zeidner, 1991), as well as to report higher levels of other academic-related anxiety, such as general test anxiety (Hembree, 1988; Zeidner & Safir, 1989; Everson et al., 1991) and mathematics anxiety (Tobias & Weissbrod, 1980; Meece, 1981; Dew et al., 1983, 1984;…”

“Cognitive and behavioral interventions, attention-redirection training, relaxation, anxiety management training, systematic desensitization, as well as teaching proper study habits and test-taking strategies have been found effective in reducing test anxiety and, interestingly, also improved test performance.([86,92])…”

“First, when entering school, children often enjoy attending and do not report much boredom, anger, or anxiety (see Hembree 1988; Zhang et al. 2019).”

“…has demonstrated that threat appraisals and anxiety often have negative implications for the quality of cognitive functioning (e.g., the ability to concentrate ) and associated outcomes, including performance and perceived competence (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990; Hembree, 1988; Schroder & Hunt, 1957).”

“Of the studies presented above, this approach has been used by Pekrun (1992), Jacob (1996), and Goetz et al. (2006) and the studies summarized by Hembree (1988).”

“The results are consistent with previous research that has found a negative relationship between elevated negative affect in young people and academic performance (Keogh, Bond, & Flaxman, 2006) and the size of the relationship was similar to that found in previous studies (Hembree, 1988).”

“The test anxiety literature (Hembree, 1988) Among those 36 principles, one states that learners will spend lots of time on task in a well-designed game, creating an environment that fosters practice.”

“Because evaluative anxiety has been shown to be of some importance in school situations (Hembree, 1988; Tobias, 1992b; Wigfield & Eccles, 1989), and there is a body of research dealing with anxiety about specific content areas such as mathematics (Hembree, 1990) and science (Mallow, 1982), among others, investigations…”

“With respect to differences related to specific groups, in his meta analysis, Hembree (1988) found that girls reported higher levels of test anxiety than boys in general (similar results are reported for test anxiety in mathematics; Hembree, 1990) and that students with high socioeconomic status…”

“The most likely explanation for this link is the observed increase of test anxiety with age, with increased experience of testing leading some children to show more adverse reactions to tests (e.g. Hembree, 1988; King et al., 1989).”

“For test anxiety, this finding is in line with the results of previous studies (Hembree, 1988).”

“The relationship between AP and Neuroticism has been mainly explained in terms of anxiety, particularly under stressful conditions such as university examinations (Hembree, 1988; Siepp, 1991).”

“According to our model, the extrinsic value of Latin should positively correlate with anxiety (Pekrun et al., 2002; see also Abela & Seligman, 2000; Hembree, 1988).”

“Perceived control and value of achievement activities and outcomes form important antecedents of achievement emotions (for summaries of supporting evidence, see Graham & Taylor, 2014; Hembree, 1988; Pekrun & Perry, 2014; Zeidner, 1998, 2014).”

“Test anxiety causes poor performance, is inversely related to self-esteem, and is positively related to fear of negative evaluation (Hembree, 1988).”

“According to meta-analyses, test anxiety negatively relates to achievement at all grade levels from elementary to graduate school (Hembree, 1988; Seipp, 1991).”

“For example, the number of studies on boredom and engagement in educational contexts is negligible when compared to the approximately 1000 studies on test anxiety (Hembree, 1988; Pekrun et al., 2010; Zeidner, 2007).”

“Maintaining the focus on negative emotions, research on the emotional and dispositional determinants of student academic success has mainly focussed on anxiety or, more specifically, on test anxiety, with consistent negative associations with academic performance being found (Hembree, 1988; Seipp, 1991).”

“…con fi rmed the proposed links for enjoyment, anger, anxiety, and boredom in educational settings (Barroso et al., 2021; Camacho-Morles et al., 2021; Hembree, 1988; Loderer et al., 2020), the workplace (Cheng & McCarthy, 2018; Ford et al., 2011; Loukidou et al., 2009), and sports (Kleine, 1990).”

“, intrusive worries about failing a test), that has been most clearly associated with affected academic performance (Hembree, 1988; Sarason, 1984).”

“, systematic desensitization, relaxation training, and modeling) have been used in the United States, resulting in the reduction of affective test anxiety with accompanied improvement in test performance (Hembree, 1988).”

“Worry about failure, self-criticism, comparing self-performance to others, and distraction are commonly entertained by test-anxious people in evaluation situations (Flett & Blankstein, 1994; Hembree, 1988).”

“Previous research has demonstrated that test anxiety can have a negative impact on grade point average and that children with high levels of test anxiety are more likely to drop out of school (Cizek & Berg 2006; Hembree, 1988; Spielberger, 1966).”

“Given these (negative) lay conceptualizations of stress, it is thus not surprising that traditional stress intervention approaches have focused on reducing the frequency or severity of stress (e.g., Bränström, Kvillemo, Brandberg, & Moskowitz, 2010; Hembree, 1988; Holmes & Rahe, 1967).”

“However, global measures of emotion may be less predictive of academic learning and achievement than more specific instruments, as may be seen, for example, from the fact that students' general trait anxiety correlates less with achievement than their test anxiety (Hembree 1988).”

“As Hembree (1988) indicated, test anxiety is starting to effect performance of primary school students from fourth grade, therefore developing programs for these grades is important for the academic and personal development of students.”

“…children experience anxiety in other performance-evaluative contexts such as sport and test taking (see Fleege, Charlesworth, Burts & Hart, 1992; Hembree, 1988; Kass & Gish, 1991; Passer, 1983; Scanlan & Lewthwaite, 1984; Simon & Martens, 1979; Smith, Smoll & Barnett, 1995; Terry, Coakley &…”

“O’Conner and Paunonen listed anxiety as a variable of interest and studies have shown it to correlate −0.29 with school grades (Hembree 1988), −0.28 with oral exams (Diaz et al. 2001), and −0.29 with scholastic achievement (Chamorro-Premuzic and Furnham 2003).”

“…the effects of negative activating emotions on achievement outcomes are more variable (see e.g., Pekrun et al., 2002), although the negative impact of these emotions on overall academic achievement are generally believed to outweigh any advantageous effects (Hembree, 1988; Pekrun et al., 2007).”

“There is a body of research showing that high self-concept is associated with low test anxiety (Gaudry & Spielberger, 1971; Greenberg, Solomon, Pyszczynski, Rosenblatt, Hurling, Lyon, Simon, & Pinel, 1992; Hembree, 1988; Hodapp, 1989; Krampen, 1988; Metcalfe, 1981; Skaavik & Rankin, 1995).”

“Researchers in the voluminous test anxiety literature have unequivocally demonstrated the deleterious effects of evaluation apprehension on a variety of outcomes, but they have predominantly attended to quantitative outcomes such as performance attainment rather than qualitative outcomes such as intrinsic motivation (…”

“The fear of being examined, tested, and put under pressure, manifested in measures of test anxiety (Hembree, 1988), has no doubt contributed to the low popularity of psychometric intelligence.”

“…anxiety scores perform worse on a range of salient educational indicators (including educational achievement) than students in the low range of scores (e.g. Hembree 1988; Pekrun et al. 2004), it becomes empirically and practically meaningful to establish how many students fall in this high range.”

“This finding is consistent however with the theorization that, unlike the findings reported by Hembree (1988), test anxiety scores would not show a decrease during Year 11 due to the high stakes nature of the GCSE examinations.”

“…discussed several interventions that have been shown to have some success over time with the regulation of test anxiety when a cognitive component, which included the identification of anxiety-facilitating beliefs, was included in the treatment (for a review of the literature, see Hembree, 1988).”