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The Irrelevance of Equilibrium Economics
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“Second, the existence of indivisibilities -and thus the need to solve 'scale bottlenecks' -in production may lead to organizational innovations, not just in the industry itself but through the whole value chain in which the industry is embedded.”
From Industrial Policy in the 21st Century (2020) · cites this paper as Kaldor, 1972
In the citing paper
“However, according to Kaldor (1972Kaldor ( : 1249-50)-50), the absorption of a continuously rising volume of production depends on 'additional incomes resulting from the accumulation of capital (in other words, from investment expenditures) combined with the induced character of such investment'.”
From Industrial Policy in the 21st Century (2020) · cites this paper as Kaldor, 1972: 1249-50
In the citing paper
“The banking sector enables capital investments which, in turn, generate the 'savingsadditional investments-savings' dynamics, while the merchants operate as countercyclical forces absorbing stocks in response to excess supply, and releasing stocks in the face of excessive demand.”
From Industrial Policy in the 21st Century (2020) · cites this paper as Kaldor, 1972
In the citing paper
“The banking sector enables capital investments which, in turn, generate the 'savingsadditional investments-savings' dynamics, while the merchants operate as countercyclical forces absorbing stocks in response to excess supply, and releasing stocks in the face of excessive demand.”
From Industrial Policy in the 21st Century (2020) · cites this paper as Kaldor, 1972
In the citing paper
“According to Kaldor, for the income multiplier and the investment accelerator mechanisms to be effective, the banking system as well as what he calls the 'merchants' have to play critical roles.”
From Industrial Policy in the 21st Century (2020) · cites this paper as Kaldor, 1972
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The Bielefeld School of economics, Post Keynesian economics, and dynamic complexity
Rosser, J. B., & Rosser, M. V. (2023) · Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization · doi:10.1016/j.jebo.2023.05.023 · Cited by 3
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Mota, P. R. (2023) · Journal of Post Keynesian Economics · doi:10.1080/01603477.2023.2268090 · Cited by 3
Behrens, A. (2012) · Thunderbird International Business Review · doi:10.1002/tie.21455 · Cited by 3
Room, G. (2020) · Sociologica · doi:10.6092/issn.1971-8853/10819 · Cited by 3
Introduction to Feedback Economics
Radzicki, M. J. (2021) · Contemporary systems thinking · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-67190-7_1 · Cited by 3
Endogenous Growth: Introduction
Chandra, R. (2021) · Palgrave studies in economic history · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-83761-7_1 · Cited by 3
Koutsoyiannis, A. (1979) · doi:10.1007/978-1-349-16077-8_4 · Cited by 3
Pitelis, C. N. (2010) · Advances in spatial science · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-14965-8_13 · Cited by 3
“This renders it of limited use to analysing issues of competitiveness and catching-up, see Kaldor (1972) , Audretsch (1989), North (1994), Amsden (2008), Nelson and Winter (2002).”
BackgroundGriffin, K. B. (1993) · Physica-Verlag eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-95905-9_10 · Cited by 3
Endogenous Growth Theory: Explanation or Post Hoc Rationalisation for Policy?
Watson, M. (2004) · The British Journal of Politics and International Relations · doi:10.1111/j.1467-856x.2004.00155.x · Cited by 3
“In his seminal article, ‘The irrelevance of equilibrium economics’, which was published in 1972, Kaldor repositions Young as a proto-Keynesian (Kaldor 1972).”
Increasing returns and economic progress revisited
Fischer, J. (2003) · Journal of Economic Studies · doi:10.1108/01443580310455250 · Cited by 3
Import competition, investment finance, and cumulative decline in the US steel industry, 1962–1981
Blecker, R. A. (1991) · International Review of Applied Economics · doi:10.1080/758533096 · Cited by 3
Ho, P. S. (2013) · Review of Political Economy · doi:10.1080/09538259.2013.837323 · Cited by 3
“22–23) he extends the consideration to the economy level and anticipates the ‘industrial differentiation’ on which Young (1928) and Kaldor (1972) subsequently elaborate and emphasize. The second type, type 2, of division of labor appears in the form of specialization and exchange of final goods, but where the details…”
BackgroundInfluentialDemand and structural change in Adam Smith's view of economic progress
Kim, K. (2014) · Cambridge Journal of Economics · doi:10.1093/cje/beu027 · Cited by 3
Reconciling the Invisible Hand and innovation
Pol, E. (2013) · Economics of Innovation and New Technology · doi:10.1080/10438599.2012.759706 · Cited by 3
Inter-Civilizational Relations and the Destiny of the West
Segesvary, V. (2004) · Cited by 3
Shah, R., Gao, Z., & Mittal, H. (2014) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-801890-3.00020-4 · Cited by 3
Elsenhans, H. (2011) · les cahiers du cread · Cited by 3
Foreign Direct Investment and Economic Integration
Pitelis, C. N. (2011) · Edward Elgar Publishing eBooks · doi:10.4337/9781849806152.00012 · Cited by 3
Introduction: the transmission mechanism and monetary policy
Mahadeva, Ł., & Sinclair, P. (2002) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511492488.002 · Cited by 3
The global stability of a class of history-dependent macroeconomic models
Lamba, H., Krejčı́, P., & Rachinskii, D. I. (2020) · Mathematical Modelling of Natural Phenomena · doi:10.1051/mmnp/2019061 · Cited by 3
Location-Specific Adjustments in Population and Employment across Metropolitan America
Mulligan, G. F., & Carruthers, J. I. (2021) · Urban Science · doi:10.3390/urbansci5010024 · Cited by 3
“As pointed out by Carlino and Mills [19] the stability of the population and employment estimates should be examined, even though the practicality of any equilibrium might be questioned [63].”
Background'Everything You Know is Wrong'. A series of challenges and responses
Jennings, F. B. (2021) · The Journal of Philosophical Economics · doi:10.46298/jpe.8669 · Cited by 3
“Generalized increasing returns (or falling long-run costs) were endorsed by Pigou in the late 1920s and Kaldor almost 50 years later (cf. Pigou 1927, 1928 and Kaldor 1972, 1973, 1975).”
BackgroundEconomic essays (part one): toward a realistic concept of choice
Jennings, F. B. (2019) · The Journal of Philosophical Economics · doi:10.46298/jpe.10732 · Cited by 3
“…of all economic and human endeavor (implying inherent tradeoffs and scarcity are endemic throughout our relations) (Marshall, 1890; Frisch, 1950; Kaldor, 1972, 1975), then competition is properly concept of choice’, The Journal of Philosophical Economics: Reflections on Economic and Social…”
BackgroundProduction Functions, the Kaldor-Verdoorn Law and Methodology
Lavoie, M. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-69676-8_12 · Cited by 3
The Diversity of European Regions and the Conditions for a Sustainable Economic Growth
Gaffard, J., & Quéré, M. (1996) · Economics of science, technology and innovation · doi:10.1007/978-1-4757-6964-7_7 · Cited by 3
The irrelevance of methodology and the art of the possible: reading Sen and Hirschman
Chakraborty, A. (1998) · Review of Development and Change · doi:10.1177/0972266119980206 · Cited by 3
“He devotes his Cambridge inaugural lecture against Kaldor’s earlier essay on the irrelevance of general equilibrium theory. See Hahn (1973) and Kaldor (1972) .”
BackgroundEconomic and Biological Evolution: A Non-Equilibrium Thermodynamic TheoryPreprint
Chen, J. (2002) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.308459 · Cited by 3
Reconsidering equilibrium: a socio-economic perspective
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The philosophy of economic modelling: a critical survey
Williams, M. J. (1999) · South African Journal of Philosophy · doi:10.1080/02580136.1999.10878185 · Cited by 3
CAPITAL THEORY AND FARM PRODUCTION ECONOMICS
Upton, M. (1976) · Journal of Agricultural Economics · doi:10.1111/j.1477-9552.1976.tb00842.x · Cited by 3
Destabilizing impacts of price and quantity adjustments to relative supply and demand
Mass, N. J. (1980) · Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization · doi:10.1016/0167-2681(80)90012-8 · Cited by 3
La dynamique économique : nouveaux débats, nouvelles perspectives
Aréna, R. (1987) · L Actualité économique · doi:10.7202/601402ar · Cited by 3
The Virtuous Circle of Innovation in Italian FirmsPreprint
Bogliacino, F., Lucchese, M., Nascia, L., & Pianta, M. (2015) · RePEc: Research Papers in Economics · Cited by 3
LONG RUN PROFIT MAXIMIZATION IN THE TURKISH MANUFACTURING SECTORPreprint
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Equilibrium versus Process: A Confrontation between Mainstream and Austrian OntologyPreprint
Gloria, S. (2013) · RePEc: Research Papers in Economics · Cited by 3
Employment, education and human capital
O’Mahony, M. (2004) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/chol9780521820387.006 · Cited by 3
ACPEU Trade and Aid Cooperation
McQueen, M., Phillips, C., Hallam, D., & Swinbank, A. (1997) · Commonwealth economic papers · doi:10.14217/9781848596320-en · Cited by 3
The productivity puzzle and the Kaldor-Verdoorn law: the case of Central and Eastern EuropePreprint
Gabrisch, H. (2020) · RePEc: Research Papers in Economics · Cited by 3
Abstraction and closure: a methodological discussion of distribution-led growth
Nikiforos, M. (2020) · Journal of Economic Methodology · doi:10.1080/1350178x.2020.1849772 · Cited by 3
“Kaldor (1972) argues that the axioms of the theory are so general and devoid of content that they have little explanatory power.”
BackgroundGroenewegen, P. (2008) · The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics · doi:10.1057/978-1-349-95121-5_675-2 · Cited by 3
Is it all in Marshall, still? An appreciation of Marshall’s contribution to modern economics
Konzelmann, S. J., Pitelis, C. N., & Tomlinson, P. R. (2025) · Cambridge Journal of Economics · doi:10.1093/cje/beaf017 · Cited by 3
Uncovered interest parity and the monetary transmission mechanism
Meredith, G. (2002) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511492488.012 · Cited by 3
Johnson, K. E. (2025) · Journal of International and Comparative Social Policy · doi:10.1017/ics.2025.19 · Cited by 2
“…the notion of cumulative causation pioneered by early development economists (Young, 1928; Rosenstein-Rodan, 1943; Myrdal, 1957; Hirschman, 1958; Kaldor, 1972; Toner, 1999) in which reinforcing mechanisms and feedback (e.g. interdependent investments) affect the dynamics of the development of…”
Potential effects of foreign trade on development
Jiang, Y. (2014) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1533/9781780634432.45 · Cited by 2
Expectations and Its Variants: The Nuanced Role of Expectations in Classical Economics
Witztum, A. (2020) · Springer studies in the history of economic thought · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-41357-6_2 · Cited by 2
Brancaccio, E., Giammetti, R., Lopreite, M., & Puliga, M. (2022) · Metroeconomica · doi:10.1111/meca.12401 · Cited by 4
Taxation and economic growth: A historical and agnostic review
Tanzi, V., Şen, H., & Kaya, A. (2023) · Acta Oeconomica · doi:10.1556/032.2023.00003 · Cited by 2
Villemeur, A. (2023) · Revue d économie politique · doi:10.3917/e.redp.335.0653 · Cited by 2
Padhi, S. P. (2024) · Global Journal of Emerging Market Economies · doi:10.1177/09749101241277486 · Cited by 2
“Second, in a related emphasis, Kaldor (1972) also pointed out that if the focus is on knowledge expansion mediated by savings-led reallocations, few firms will get a higher market share at the cost of others, with aggregate output remaining the same.”
Soziale Differenzierung und Wirtschaftstheorie
Arida, P. (1985) · VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-663-11396-6_3 · Cited by 2
The Soft Budget Constraint: An
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Martínez, O. E. M. (2021) · Panorama Económico · doi:10.32997/pe-2021-3652 · Cited by 2
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Bagchi, A. K. (2023) · The Economic and Labour Relations Review · doi:10.1017/elr.2022.8 · Cited by 2
Entrepreneurship and Progress: The Need for a Greater Integration of Kirzner's and Hayek's Insights
Garello, P. (2002) · Journal des Economistes et des Etudes Humaines · doi:10.2202/1145-6396.1058 · Cited by 2
Jennings, F. B. (2009) · Forum for Social Economics · doi:10.1007/s12143-009-9045-x · Cited by 2
“Might the efficiency arguments shift to cooperation in this setting, implying competition is really eroding and not enhancing output? This appears to be the case: scarcity is increased and not reduced by competition in the presence of complementarity and—by extension, according to Kaldor (1972, 1975) —increasing retur…”
BackgroundMarkets, prices and market power
Lines, T. (2008) · International Journal of Green Economics · doi:10.1504/ijge.2008.021424 · Cited by 2
The role of competition in the technoeconomic paradigm on the market
Aydın, G., & Takay, A. (2012) · Economic Annals · doi:10.2298/eka1293137a · Cited by 2
Development Economics without Growth Theory
Velupillai, K. V. (2010) · Economia Politica · doi:10.1428/31682 · Cited by 2
Knowledge and social networks: New dimensions of economic interaction between firms
Steiner, M., & Ploder, M. (2011) · Journal of Intelligence Studies in Business · doi:10.37380/jisib.v1i1.14 · Cited by 2
“cumulative causation corresponds with a dynamic view of a co-evolutionary development of economies of agglomeration and growing clusters (without yet formalizing interdependency as was done by Kaldor (1972) and Dixon and Thirlwall (1975).”
BackgroundInfluential(Ir)reversibility of Hysteretic Systems in Post-Keynesian Economics
Chytil, Z., & Máslo, L. A. (2014) · Cited by 2
Centorrino, M., & Ofria, F. (2008) · Rivista economica del Mezzogiorno · doi:10.1432/27151 · Cited by 2
CAUSAÇÃO CUMULATIVA EM MYRDAL E SEUS DESDOBRAMENTOS ENQUANTO ALTERNATIVAS AO CONCEITO DE EQUILÍBRIO
Oliveira, T. D., & Attílio, L. A. (2016) · Revista de Economia · doi:10.5380/re.v40i3.39584 · Cited by 2
Teixeira, J. R., Pinheiro, D. S., & Vilasboas, A. E. S. (2015) · DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) · Cited by 2
Chance and Necessity in Industrial Development
Kwaśnicki, W. (1995) · IIASA PURE (International Institute of Applied Systems Analysis) · Cited by 2
Lipsey, R. G. (2018) · Summit (Simon Fraser University) · Cited by 2
Teorias do Comércio Internacional, Estrutura Produtiva e Crescimento Econômico
Silva, J., & de Lourenço, A. L. C. (2017) · Economia Ensaios · doi:10.14393/ree-v32n1a2017-7 · Cited by 2
Regional Manufacturing Disparity in India and the Role of Investment
Padhi, S. P. (2017) · The Indian Economic Journal · doi:10.1177/0019466217727886 · Cited by 2
Population and Employment Change in US Metropolitan Areas
Mulligan, G. F., Nilsson, H. A. K., & Carruthers, J. I. (2019) · New frontiers in regional science: Asian perspectives · doi:10.1007/978-981-13-9231-3_6 · Cited by 2
Market versus government failures under risk and under uncertainty
Ciccarone, G. (2020) · Journal of Public Finance and Public Choice · doi:10.1332/251569120x15802174243174 · Cited by 2
Evolutionary Micro-Founded Technical Change and the Kaldor-Verdoorn Law
Lorentz, A. (2018) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316477168.006 · Cited by 2
“Second, as stated by Kaldor (1972), dynamic increasing returns, as measured by the Law, can only be considered out of equilibrium, and necessary generates disequilibrium.”
Economic essays (part two): toward a realistic concept of choice
Jennings, F. B. (2020) · The Journal of Philosophical Economics · doi:10.46298/jpe.10734 · Cited by 2
Padhi, S. P. (2020) · Journal of Post Keynesian Economics · doi:10.1080/01603477.2020.1774391 · Cited by 2
“In this sense, Kaldor (1972)’s Keynesian support for the Youngian increasing returns-led cumulative causation process should have had given explicit importance to the Youngian external economies and how they induce the sophisticated inter-linkages of specializations/intermediate goods. It should be noticed that the pr…”
BackgroundInfluentialParadigm Change or Assimilation? The Case of Behavioral Economics
Τζωτζές, Σ., & Milonakis, D. (2020) · Review of Radical Political Economics · doi:10.1177/0486613420906901 · Cited by 2
“…theorizing, particularly following the axiomatization of general equilibrium theory in mathematical form by Debreu (1959), required a long list of increasingly arbitrary assumptions without any effort to demonstrate their relevance to empirical material or logical consistency (Kaldor 1972: 1238).”
BackgroundOkada, E. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-64042-2_8 · Cited by 2
Is the New Monetary Consensus Still Alive? A Critical Economic and Philosophical Appraisal
Pilkington, M. (2021) · Revue de philosophie économique · doi:10.3917/rpec.212.0007 · Cited by 2
Investimentos públicos e privados no Brasil entre 1996 e 2018
Bredow, S. M. S., Cunha, A. M., & Lélis, M. T. C. (2022) · Brazilian Journal of Political Economy · doi:10.1590/0101-31572022-3273 · Cited by 2
Adam Smith’s Perfectly Competitive Market Is Not Pareto Efficient: A Dynamic Perspective
Ahmed, M. A., & Nawaz, N. (2023) · Theoretical Economics Letters · doi:10.4236/tel.2023.133028 · Cited by 2
“Kaldor (1972) argues that the general economic equilibrium originally formulated by Walras and mathematically developed by Gerard Debreu is too over simplistic to depict the real world phenomena.”
Nicholas Kaldor and Critical Realism
Jefferson, T., & King, J. E. (2009) · Review of Political Economy · doi:10.1080/09538250903073537 · Cited by 2
“We therefore concentrate on three important works, all published late in his career (Kaldor, 1972 , 1985 , 1996 ).”
BackgroundInfluentialEquilibrium without Constraints
Nell, E. J. (1992) · Palgrave Macmillan UK eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-349-22086-1_12 · Cited by 2
Neal, L. D. (2004) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/chol9780521820387.012 · Cited by 2
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Vouldis, A. T. (2018) · Journal of Economic Issues · doi:10.1080/00213624.2018.1490114 · Cited by 2
“For example, Kaldor hinted at this relationship between the equilibrium approach and the priors of neoclassical theoreticians about the efficiency of the economic system in his essay on equilibrium economics (Kaldor 1972, p. 1239).”
BackgroundRe-Examining the Development of Hirschman’s Linkage Analysis with Detection of Smithian Flavor
Ho, P. S. (2019) · Review of Political Economy · doi:10.1080/09538259.2019.1635366 · Cited by 2
“This line of analysis was revived especially by Young (1928) and Kaldor (1972), with a consideration of not just industrial integration but also differentiation, in harnessing increasing returns.”
MethodCramer, C., Sender, J., & Oqubay, A. (2020) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198832331.001.0001 · Cited by 96
Capabilities Accumulation and Development
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Implausible Equilibrium Solutions in Economics and FinancePreprint
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“Previous studies [Akerlof and Yellen 1985, Scharfstein and Stein 1990] suggested that allowing a subset of the agents to be nonmaximizing might shift the equilibrium solution but a logical flaw in those analyses prevented the possibility of non-equilibrium solutions.”
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Medium-run macrodynamics and the consensus view of stabilization policyPreprint
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Metadata
- Authors
- Kaldor, N.
- Affiliations
- University of Cambridge (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Kaldor, Nicholas
- Venue
- The Economic Journal
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 1972-12
- Volume
- 82
- Issue
- 328
- Pages
- 1237
- ISSN
- 0013-0133 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W1980427659
- Cited by
- 1,013
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 20 · 2025: 22 · 2024: 14 · 2023: 27 · 2022: 23 · 2021: 36 · 2020: 44 · 2019: 30 · 2018: 32 · 2017: 36 · 2016: 31 · 2015: 34 · 2014: 29 · 2013: 28 · 2012: 30
- FWCI
- 26.75
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- The Economic Journal (publishedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Economics, Econometrics and Finance › General Economics, Econometrics and Finance › Economic Theory and Policy
- Social Sciences › Economics, Econometrics and Finance › Economics and Econometrics › Economic theories and models
- Social Sciences › Economics, Econometrics and Finance › Economics and Econometrics › Economic Theory and Institutions
- Keywords
- economic equilibrium, economic methodology, general equilibrium
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