Cited by 664Diabetes Management and EducationPsychometric Methodologies and TestingHealth Education and Validation

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The Problem Areas in Diabetes Scale: An evaluation of its clinical utility

Welch, Garry W, Jacobson, Alan M, Polonsky, William H·1997·Diabetes Care

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Abstract

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the reliability and concurrent and discriminant validity of the Problem Areas in Diabetes (PAID) scale, a new measure of emotional functioning in diabetes. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: A battery of questionnaires, including the PAID, was completed by 256 volunteer diabetic outpatients. In our analyses, we examined the PAID's internal structure and compared mean IDDM and NIDDM treatment group scores in regression analyses to explore its discriminant validity. We also evaluated concurrent validity from the correlations between the PAID and diabetes-specific measures of coping and health attitudes and HbA1c. RESULTS: Principal component analyses identified a large emotional adjustment factor, supporting the use of the total score. Significant sizable correlations were found between the PAID and a range of selected health attitudinal measures. There were significant differences (with small-to-moderate effect sizes) in PAID scores between IDDM and NIDDM patients and between IDDM and NIDDM insulin- and tablet-treated subgroups; no differences were found between NIDDM insulin- and tablet-treated subgroups. CONCLUSIONS: The study findings provided support for the construct validity of the PAID, including evidence for discriminant validity from its ability to detect differences between IDDM and NIDDM treatment groups expected to differ in the emotional impact of life with diabetes. Future studies should explore the PAID's performance in nonspecialist treatment settings as well as its responsiveness to clinical change.

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Items 201–300 of 663

Screening for depression and diabetes‐related distress in a diabetes outpatient clinic
Fleer, J., Tovote, K. A., Keers, J. C., Links, T. P., Sanderman, R., Coyne, J. C., & Schroevers, M. J. (2012) · Diabetic Medicine · doi:10.1111/dme.12001 · Cited by 39
Diabetes distress, illness perceptions and glycaemic control in adults with type 2 diabetes
Martinez, K., Lockhart, S. M., Davies, M., Lindsay, J. R., & Dempster, M. (2017) · Psychology Health & Medicine · doi:10.1080/13548506.2017.1339892 · Cited by 40
How Do the Challenges of Emerging Adulthood Inform our Understanding of Diabetes Distress? An Integrative Review
Wentzell, K., Vessey, J. A., & Laffel, L. M. (2020) · Current Diabetes Reports · doi:10.1007/s11892-020-01301-3 · Cited by 46
Depression in Croatian Type 2 diabetic patients: prevalence and risk factors. A Croatian survey from the European Depression in Diabetes (EDID) Research Consortium
Pibernik-Okanović, M., Peroš, K., Szabo, S., Begić, D., & Metelko, Ž. (2005) · Diabetic Medicine · doi:10.1111/j.1464-5491.2005.01528.x · Cited by 40
Psychometric evaluation of the Problem Areas in Diabetes (PAID) survey in Southern, rural African American women with Type 2 diabetes
Miller, S. T., & Elasy, T. A. (2008) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/1471-2458-8-70 · Cited by 40
“95) and factor analyses revealed a single global emotional distress factor [11].”
BackgroundInfluential
Disentangling Clinical Depression from Diabetes-Specific Distress: Making Sense of the Mess We’ve Made
Esbitt, S. A., Tanenbaum, M. L., & Gonzalez, J. S. (2012) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-0-85729-751-8_2 · Cited by 43
Effectiveness of a Training Course for General Practice Nurses in Motivation Support in Type 2 Diabetes Care: A Cluster-Randomised Trial
Juul, L., Maindal, H. T., Zoffmann, V., Frydenberg, M., & Sandbæk, A. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0096683 · Cited by 40
“The Outcomes The primary outcomes were HbA1c and total cholesterol levels, and well-being, which were measured by the Problem Areas In Diabetes (PAID) scale [14] and the mental component summary score from the SF-12 (SF12, mcs) [15].”
Method
Behavioral health coaching for rural-living older adults with diabetes and depression: an open pilot of the HOPE Study
Naik, A. D., White, C. D., Robertson, S. M., Armento, M. E. A., Lawrence, B. M., Stelljes, L. A., & Cully, J. A. (2012) · BMC Geriatrics · doi:10.1186/1471-2318-12-37 · Cited by 39
“The Problem Areas in Diabetes Scale (PAID) was used to assess diabetes-specific emotional distress [29,30].”
Method
Diabetes-related emotional distress instruments: A systematic review of measurement properties
Lee, J., Lee, E., Kim, C., & Moon, S. H. (2015) · International Journal of Nursing Studies · doi:10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2015.07.004 · Cited by 39
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Group follow-up compared to individual clinic visits after structured education for type 1 diabetes: A cluster randomised controlled trial
Dinneen, S. F., O’Hara, M. C., Byrne, M., Smith, D., Courtney, C. H., McGurk, C., Heller, S. R., Newell, J., Bargary, N., Breen, C., et al. (2013) · Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice · doi:10.1016/j.diabres.2013.01.017 · Cited by 38
“Almost 40 percent of individuals reported feeling burdened by their diabetes on the PAID scale”
Influential
The Problem Areas in Diabetes (PAID) scale: psychometric evaluation survey in a Greek sample with type 2 diabetes
Papathanasiou, A., Koutsovasilis, A., Shea, S. A., Philalithis, A. E., Papavasiliou, S. S., Melidonis, A. J., & Lionis, C. D. (2012) · Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2850.2012.01875.x · Cited by 38
Development and validation of the Diabetes Obstacles Questionnaire (DOQ) to assess obstacles in living with Type 2 diabetes
Hearnshaw, H., Wright, K., Dale, J. R., Sturt, J. A., Vermeire, E., & Royen, P. V. (2007) · Diabetic Medicine · doi:10.1111/j.1464-5491.2007.02137.x · Cited by 38
Diabetes MILES – The Netherlands: rationale, design and sample characteristics of a national survey examining the psychosocial aspects of living with diabetes in Dutch adults
Nefs, G., Bot, M., Browne, J. L., Speight, J., & Pouwer, F. (2012) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/1471-2458-12-925 · Cited by 38
“Diabetes-related distress PAID: Problem Areas In Diabetes scale [63]†‡ All participants”
Background
Psychosocial and Psychiatric Challenges of Diabetes Mellitus
Weinger, K., & Lee, J. (2006) · Nursing Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/j.cnur.2006.07.002 · Cited by 36
Effects of gender, age, family support, and treatment on perceived stress and coping of patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus
Hara, Y., Hisatomi, M., Ito, H., et al. (2014) · BioPsychoSocial Medicine · doi:10.1186/1751-0759-8-16 · Cited by 36
“have used the Problem Areas in Diabetes scale and other tools to compare the effect of insulin therapy, OHA therapy, and diet therapy on coping and emotional well-being, although they reported finding no significant differences between insulin- and OHA-treated subgroups of patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus [15].”
Method
Effects of Mindfulness on Psychological Distress and HbA1c in People with Diabetes
Pearson, S., Wills, K. E., Woods, M., & Warnecke, E. (2018) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-018-0908-1 · Cited by 38
“95) (Welch et al. 1997) and is sensitive to change over time; effect sizes range from 0.”
Influential
Validation of the Turkish Version of the Problem Areas in Diabetes Scale
Veld, E. M. J. H. I. ’., Makine, C., Nouwen, A., Karşıdağ, Ç., Kadıoğlu, P., Karşıdağ, K., & Pouwer, F. (2011) · Cardiovascular Psychiatry and Neurology · doi:10.1155/2011/315068 · Cited by 36
“Unexpectedly, and incongruent with other studies, the PAID was not related to HbA1c levels [8, 10, 11, 14, 15].”
BackgroundResult
The validity and reliability of the English version of the diabetes distress scale for type 2 diabetes patients in Malaysia
Chin, Y. W., Lai, P. S. M., & Chia, Y. C. (2017) · BMC Family Practice · doi:10.1186/s12875-017-0601-9 · Cited by 35
“Several disease specific instruments have been developed to identify and assess diabetes distress: the Diabetes Distress Scale (DDS-17) [19], the Diabetes Health Profile (DHP-18) [20], the Diabetes-specific Quality-of-Life Scale (DSQOLS) [21], the Questionnaire on Stress in patients with Diabetes (QSD) [22] and the Pr…”
Background
Association between diabetes distress and all-cause mortality in Japanese individuals with type 2 diabetes: a prospective cohort study (Diabetes Distress and Care Registry in Tenri [DDCRT 18])
for the Diabetes Distress and Care Registry at Tenri Study Group, Hayashino, Y., Okamura, S., Tsujii, S., & Ishii, H. (2018) · Diabetologia · doi:10.1007/s00125-018-4657-4 · Cited by 35
“across different studies and has discriminative validity [7, 16].”
Background
Test of the modified dual pathway model of eating disorders in individuals with type 1 diabetes
Rancourt, D., Foster, N. C., Bollepalli, S., Fitterman-Harris, H. F., Powers, M. A., Clements, M. A., & SMITH, L. B. (2019) · International Journal of Eating Disorders · doi:10.1002/eat.23054 · Cited by 41
How does anger coping style affect glycemic control in diabetes patients?
Yi, J. P., Yi, J. C., VITALIANO, P. P., & Weinger, K. (2008) · International Journal of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1080/10705500802219481 · Cited by 36
“The PAID has high internal consistency and validity (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.95; Polonsky et al., 1995; Welch, Jacobson, & Polonsky, 1997 ).”
BackgroundInfluential
Psychological Characteristics of Frequent Short-Notice Cancellers of Diabetes Medical and Education Appointments
Weinger, K., Greenlaw, S. M., Yi, J. P., Lin, S. X., & Rodriguez, M. (2005) · Diabetes Care · doi:10.2337/diacare.28.7.1791 · Cited by 35
“After giving informed written consent, patients completed a battery of psychological tests consisting of the Problem Areas in Diabetes scale (13,14), Self-Management Questionnaire (15), Self-Care Inventory-R (16,17), Brief Symptom Index (18), Coping Styles Questionnaire (19), Rosenberg Self Esteem Questionnaire (20,21…”
Method
Validation of the Spanish version of the Problem Areas in Diabetes (PAID-SP) Scale
Vázquez, M. B., Hernández‐Mijares, A., Marco, J. H., Domínguez, J. R., & Pomares, F. (2014) · Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice · doi:10.1016/j.diabres.2014.09.012 · Cited by 34
Prevalence of and risk factors for sexual dysfunctions in adults with type 1 or type 2 diabetes: Results from Diabetes MILES ‐ Flanders
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Winkley, K., Stahl, D. R., Chamley, M., Stopford, R., Boughdady, M., Thomas, S., Amiel, S. A., Forbes, A., & Ismail, K. (2015) · Patient Education and Counseling · doi:10.1016/j.pec.2015.08.015 · Cited by 34
“25 to achieve a final score between 0 and 100, scores≥ 40 represent high risk of emotional burnout [28].”
Background
The role of overprotection by the partner in coping with diabetes: A moderated mediation model
Schokker, M. C., Links, T. P., Bouma, J., Keers, J. C., Sanderman, R., Wolffenbuttel, B. H. R., & Hagedoorn, M. (2010) · Psychology and Health · doi:10.1080/08870440903342325 · Cited by 34
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Pibernik-Okanović, M., Hermanns, N., Ajduković, D., Kos, J., Prašek, M., Šekerija, M., & Lovrenčić, M. V. (2015) · Trials · doi:10.1186/s13063-015-0833-8 · Cited by 34
“Emotional symptoms in individuals with milder depressive symptoms (CES-D 16) and no serious problems related to diabetes (PAID 40) did not improve but remained within subclinical scores’ range.”
MethodInfluential
The association between Problem Areas in Diabetes Scale scores and glycemic control is modified by types of diabetes therapy: Diabetes Distress and Care Registry in Tenri (DDCRT 2)
Hayashino, Y., Okamura, S., Matsunaga, S., Tsujii, S., & Ishii, H. (2012) · Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice · doi:10.1016/j.diabres.2012.04.005 · Cited by 33
“[8] Welch GW, Jacobson AM, Polonsky WH.”
The distress experienced by people with type 2 diabetes
West, C., & McDowell, J. R. S. (2002) · British Journal of Community Nursing · doi:10.12968/bjcn.2002.7.12.10901 · Cited by 33
Using a Discrete-Choice Experiment Involving Cost to Value a Classification System Measuring the Quality-of-Life Impact of Self-Management for Diabetes
Rowen, D., Stevens, K. J., Labeit, A. M., et al. (2017) · Value in Health · doi:10.1016/j.jval.2017.06.016 · Cited by 32
“[21] Welch GW, Jacobson AM, Polonsky WH.”
BackgroundInfluential
The assessment and management of quality of life of older adults with diabetes mellitus
Kassem, L. S., & Aron, D. C. (2020) · Expert Review of Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1080/17446651.2020.1737520 · Cited by 35
Willingness of patients with diabetes to use an ICT-based self-management tool: a cross-sectional study
Shibuta, T., Waki, K., 富澤修子, Igarashi, A., Yamamoto‐Mitani, N., Yamaguchi, S., Fujita, H., Kimura, S., Fujiu, K., Waki, H., et al. (2017) · BMJ Open Diabetes Research & Care · doi:10.1136/bmjdrc-2016-000322 · Cited by 34
“20 21 Detailed information on these three scales can be found in the online supplementary material.”
Background
Patients' Evaluation of the Quality of Diabetes Care (PEQD): development and validation of a new instrument
Pouwer, F. (2002) · BMJ Quality & Safety · doi:10.1136/qhc.11.2.131 · Cited by 32
Self‐compassion and psychological distress in chronic illness: A meta‐analysis
Baxter, R., & Sirois, F. M. (2024) · British Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjhp.12761 · Cited by 42
From Acorns to Oak Trees: The Development and Theoretical Underpinnings of Diabetes Conversation Map Education Tools
Reaney, M. D., Eichorst, B., & Gorman, P. (2012) · Diabetes Spectrum · doi:10.2337/diaspect.25.2.111 · Cited by 31
Design and psychometrics for new measures of health-related quality of life in adults with type 1 diabetes: Type 1 Diabetes and Life (T1DAL)
Hilliard, M. E., Marrero, D. G., Minard, C. G., Cao, V. T., de Wit, M., DuBose, S. N., Verdejo, A. S., Jaser, S. S., Kruger, D. F., Monzavi, R., et al. (2020) · Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice · doi:10.1016/j.diabres.2020.108537 · Cited by 30
Randomized controlled study to evaluate the impact of flexible patient‐controlled visits in people with type 1 diabetes: The DiabetesFlex Trial
Laurberg, T., Schougaard, L. M. V., Hjollund, N. H., Lomborg, K., Hansen, T. K., & Jensen, A. (2022) · Diabetic Medicine · doi:10.1111/dme.14791 · Cited by 29
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Knoll, C., Schipp, J., O’Donnell, S., Wäldchen, M., Ballhausen, H., Cleal, B. R., Gajewska, K. A., Raile, K., Skinner, T. C., & Braune, K. (2022) · Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice · doi:10.1016/j.diabres.2022.110153 · Cited by 36
Treatment Response in Type 2 Diabetes Patients with Major Depression
Góis, C., Dias, V. V., do Carmo, I., Duarte, R., Ferro, A., Santos, A., Sousa, F., & Barbosa, A. (2012) · Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.1817 · Cited by 32
Development of elderly diabetes burden scale for elderly patients with diabetes mellitus
Araki, A., & Ito, H. (2003) · Geriatrics and gerontology international/Geriatrics & gerontology international · doi:10.1111/j.1444-1586.2003.00084.x · Cited by 31
Psychosocial factors contributing to persistent depressive symptoms in type 2 diabetic patients: a Croatian survey from the European Depression in Diabetes Research Consortium
Pibernik-Okanović, M., Begić, D., Peroš, K., Szabo, S., & Metelko, Ž. (2008) · Journal of Diabetes and its Complications · doi:10.1016/j.jdiacomp.2007.03.002 · Cited by 32
Diabetes-related burden and distress in people with diabetes mellitus at primary care level in Germany
Kuniß, N., Rechtacek, T., Kloos, C., Müller, U., Roth, J., Burghardt, K., & Kramer, G. (2017) · Acta Diabetologica · doi:10.1007/s00592-017-0972-3 · Cited by 32
EMPOWER-support of patient empowerment by an intelligent self-management pathway for patients: study protocol
Mantwill, S., Fiordelli, M., Ludolph, R. A., & Schulz, P. J. (2015) · BMC Medical Informatics and Decision Making · doi:10.1186/s12911-015-0142-x · Cited by 32
“Diabetes (PAID) [31].”
Diabetes Distress and Associated Factors in Patients with Diabetes Mellitus in South East Nigeria
Onyenekwe, B. M., Young, E. E., Nwatu, C. B., Okafor, C. I., & Ugwueze, C. V. (2020) · Dubai Diabetes and Endocrinology Journal · doi:10.1159/000508706 · Cited by 35
Effects of an integrated mindfulness intervention for veterans with diabetes distress: a randomized controlled trial
DiNardo, M. M., Greco, C., Phares, A. D., Beyer, N. M., Youk, A. O., Obrosky, D. S., Morone, N. E., Owen, J. E., Saba, S. K., Suss, S. J., et al. (2022) · BMJ Open Diabetes Research & Care · doi:10.1136/bmjdrc-2021-002631 · Cited by 30
Patient-reported outcome (PRO) measurements in chronic and malignant diseases: ten years’ experience with PRO-algorithm-based patient-clinician interaction (telePRO) in AmbuFlex
Hjøllund, N. H., Larsen, L. P., de Thurah, A. L., Grove, B. E., Skúladóttir, H., Linnet, H., Friis, R. B., Johnsen, S. P., May, O., Jensen, A. L., et al. (2023) · Quality of Life Research · doi:10.1007/s11136-022-03322-9 · Cited by 30
“B20 HIV disease (HV)g 2015- > [1, 3] 43 Path 32 items M GYR C34 Lung cancer (PW)f 2018- > EORTC [52] [2] 17 Needauto 12 items, f:1 M GR C43 Malignant melanoma (IM)f 2017–19 70 Instruction 24 items GR C50 Breast cancer (AB) 2016- > EORTC CTCAE [53] 72 Need + Path 69 items Q & M GYR C61 Prostate cancer (PC) 2014–19 EORT…”
Beliefs About Willpower Are Related to Therapy Adherence and Psychological Adjustment in Patients With Type 2 Diabetes
Bernecker, K., & Job, V. (2015) · Basic and Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/01973533.2015.1049348 · Cited by 36
Maximizing the value of validation findings to better understand treatment satisfaction issues for diabetes
Brod, M. I., Christensen, T., & Bushnell, D. M. (2007) · Quality of Life Research · doi:10.1007/s11136-007-9209-1 · Cited by 29
“Moreover the compliance scale showed significant correlations with the ITSQ overall score and the Problem Areas in Diabetes (PAID) instrument [33-35].”
Method
Stability and predictive utility, over 3 years, of the illness beliefs of individuals recently diagnosed with Type 2 diabetes mellitus
Skinner, T. C., Khunti, K. K., Carey, M., Dallosso, H. M., Heller, S. R., & Davies, M. J. (2014) · Diabetic Medicine · doi:10.1111/dme.12484 · Cited by 28
Impact of Conversation Map™ Education Tools Versus Regular Care on Diabetes-Related Knowledge of People With Type 2 Diabetes: A Randomized, Controlled Study
Reaney, M., Zorzo, E. G., Golay, A., Hermanns, N., Cleall, S., Petzinger, U., & Koivisto, V. (2013) · Diabetes Spectrum · doi:10.2337/diaspect.26.4.236 · Cited by 34
The effect of an education programme ( MEDIAS 2 BSC ) of non‐intensive insulin treatment regimens for people with Type 2 diabetes: a randomized, multi‐centre trial
Hermanns, N., Ehrmann, D., Schall, S., Maier, B., Haak, T., & Kulzer, B. (2017) · Diabetic Medicine · doi:10.1111/dme.13346 · Cited by 29
Development and validation of a scale to measure diabetes burnout
Abdoli, S., Miller-Bains, K. L., Fanti, P., Silveira, M. S., & Hessler, D. (2021) · Journal of Clinical & Translational Endocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.jcte.2021.100251 · Cited by 32
“, Problem Areas in Diabetes Scales [PAID] [33] or Type 1- Diabetes Distress Scale [T1-DDS]32) do not assess the unique dimensions of diabetes burnout.”
Background
Health related quality of life in patients with type I diabetes mellitus: generic & disease-specific measurement.
Hart, H. E., Redekop, K., Bilo, H. J. G., Jong, B. M., & Berg, M. (2007) · PubMed · Cited by 29
A cluster randomized controlled non‐inferiority trial of 5‐day Dose Adjustment for Normal Eating (DAFNE) training delivered over 1 week versus 5‐day DAFNE training delivered over 5 weeks: the DAFNE 5 × 1‐day trial
Elliott, D., Rankin, D., Jacques, R., Lawton, J., Emery, C., Campbell, M. J., Dixon, S., & Heller, S. R. (2014) · Diabetic Medicine · doi:10.1111/dme.12621 · Cited by 27
ViDa1: The Development and Validation of a New Questionnaire for Measuring Health-Related Quality of Life in Patients with Type 1 Diabetes
Alvarado-Martel, D., Fernández, M. Á. R., Vigaray, M. C., Carrillo, A., Boronat, M., Expósito‐Montesdeoca, A. B., Nattero‐Chávez, L., Sánchez, M. P., Quevedo, P. L., Santana-Suarez, A. D., et al. (2017) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00904 · Cited by 27
What works best for whom? Cognitive Behavior Therapy and Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy for depressive symptoms in patients with diabetes
Tovote, K. A., Schroevers, M. J., Snippe, E., Emmelkamp, P. M. G., Links, T. P., Sanderman, R., & Fleer, J. (2017) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0179941 · Cited by 31
“Diabetes-related distress was measured by The Problem Areas In Diabetes (PAID) [44,45].”
MethodInfluential
Skin Problems Due to Treatment with Technology Are Associated with Increased Disease Burden Among Adults with Type 1 Diabetes
Christensen, M. O., Berg, A. K., Rytter, K., Hommel, E., Thyssen, J. P., Svensson, J., & Nørgaard, K. (2019) · Diabetes Technology & Therapeutics · doi:10.1089/dia.2019.0007 · Cited by 28
“Validity has been demonstrated in other countries and languages, 25,27,32,33 and the PAID scale has been translated and used in several other Danish studies.”
Factors associated with fear of hypoglycaemia among the T1D Exchange Glu population in a cross-sectional online survey
Liu, J., Bispham, J. A., Fan, L., Poon, J. L., Hughes, A. S., McAuliffe‐Fogarty, A. H., Varnado, O. J., & Mitchell, B. D. (2020) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2020-038462 · Cited by 30
Grandparenthood status and health outcomes in midlife African American women with type 2 diabetes.
Balukonis, J., Melkus, G. D., & Chyun, D. A. (2008) · PubMed · Cited by 27
Yoga as a Complementary Therapy for Adults with Type 2 Diabetes: Design and Rationale of the Healthy, Active, and in Control (HA1C) Study
Thind, H. K., Fava, J. L., Guthrie, K. M., Stroud, L. R., Gopalakrishnan, G., Sillice, M. A., Gidron, N., & Bock, B. C. (2018) · International Journal of Yoga Therapy · doi:10.17761/2018-00026 · Cited by 30
Exploring patient information needs in type 2 diabetes: A cross sectional study of questions
Crangle, C., Bradley, C., Carlin, P. F., Esterhay, R. J., Harper, R., Kearney, P. M., Carthy, V. J. C. M., McTear, M., Savage, E., Tuttle, M. S., et al. (2018) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0203429 · Cited by 29
Testing a Dimensional Versus a Typological Approach to the Communal Coping Model in the Context of Type 2 Diabetes
Basinger, E. D. (2019) · Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10410236.2019.1573297 · Cited by 27
Depressive Symptoms in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: Do Stress and Coping Matter?
Shah, B. M., Gupchup, G. V., Borrego, M. E., Raisch, D. W., & Knapp, K. K. (2011) · Stress and Health · doi:10.1002/smi.1410 · Cited by 26
“These results are in agreement with prior findings showing that high scores on the avoidance, passive resignation and diabetes integration subscales are associated with greater emotional distress in patients with type 1 and type 2 diabetes (Welch et al., 1997).”
Result
The Irish DAFNE Study Protocol: A cluster randomised trial of group versus individual follow-up after structured education for Type 1 diabetes
the Irish DAFNE Study Group, Dinneen, S. F., Hara, M. C. O., Byrne, M., Newell, J., Daly, L., Shea, D. O., & Smith, D. (2009) · Trials · doi:10.1186/1745-6215-10-88 · Cited by 27
“The Problem Areas in Diabetes (PAID) measure is a 20 item questionnaire that uses a Likert-scale to assess an individual’s diabetesrelated distress [22].”
Diabetes Attitudes, Wishes and Needs Second Study (DAWN2): Understanding Diabetes-Related Psychosocial Outcomes for Canadians with Diabetes
Vallis, M., Burns, K. K., Hollahan, D. E., Ross, S. A., & Hahn, J. (2016) · Canadian Journal of Diabetes · doi:10.1016/j.jcjd.2015.11.002 · Cited by 25
Diabetes Learning in Virtual Environments
Vorderstrasse, A. A., Melkus, G. D., Pan, W., Lewinski, A. A., & Johnson, C. (2015) · Nursing Research · doi:10.1097/nnr.0000000000000128 · Cited by 27
Evaluation of the Clinical and Cost Effectiveness of Intermediate Care Clinics for Diabetes (ICCD): A Multicentre Cluster Randomised Controlled Trial
Wilson, A., O’Hare, J. P., Hardy, A., Raymond, N. T., Szczepura, A. K., Crossman, R. J., Baines, D. L., Khunti, K. K., Kumar, S., Saravanan, P., et al. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0093964 · Cited by 27
“Emotional functioning using the ‘Problem Areas in Diabetes’ (PAID) questionnaire [20] continuity of care using the ‘Continuity of Care Questionnaire’ [21].”
Method
Psychoeducation versus treatment as usual in diabetic patients with subthreshold depression: preliminary results of a randomized controlled trial
Pibernik-Okanović, M., Begić, D., Ajduković, D., Andrijašević, N., & Metelko, Ž. (2009) · Trials · doi:10.1186/1745-6215-10-78 · Cited by 27
Prevalence of Insulin Pump Therapy and Its Association with Measures of Glycemic Control: Results from the Canadian Study of Longevity in Type 1 Diabetes
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Mobile phone and web-based cognitive behavior therapy for depressive symptoms and mental health comorbidities in people living with diabetes: results of a feasibility study
Clarke, J., Proudfoot, J., & Ma, H. (2016) · JMIR Mental Health · doi:10.2196/mental.5131 · Cited by 26
“Emotional adjustment to diabetes was measured using the 20-item Problem Areas in Diabetes scale (PAID; [35,36]) Items are rated on a 5-point Likert scale (0-4) and assess distress caused by treatment, food, diet, social support, and emotional XSL • FO RenderX issues.”
Electronic capturing of patient-reported outcome measures on a touchscreen computer in clinical diabetes practice (the DiaPROM trial): a feasibility study
Hernar, I., Graue, M., Richards, D. A., Strandberg, R. B., Nilsen, R. M., Tell, G. S., & Haugstvedt, A. (2019) · Pilot and Feasibility Studies · doi:10.1186/s40814-019-0419-4 · Cited by 26
PAID-11: A brief measure of diabetes distress validated in adults with type 1 diabetes
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CE: Original Research: Experiences of Diabetes Burnout: A Qualitative Study Among People with Type 1 Diabetes
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A Practitioner’s Toolkit for Insulin Motivation in Adults with Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: Evidence-Based Recommendations from an International Expert Panel
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Diabetes burnout among emerging adults with type 1 diabetes: a mixed methods investigation
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Hybrid Closed Loop Using a Do-It-Yourself Artificial Pancreas System in Adults With Type 1 Diabetes
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A Systematic Review of Patient-Reported and Economic Outcomes: Value to Stakeholders in the Decision-Making Process in Patients With Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus
Vieta, A., Badia, X. C., & Sacristán, J. A. (2011) · Clinical Therapeutics · doi:10.1016/j.clinthera.2011.07.013 · Cited by 25
A study of a pre-operative intervention in patients with diabetes undergoing cardiac surgery
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The Impact of a Mobile Diabetes Health Intervention on Diabetes Distress and Depression Among Adults: Secondary Analysis of a Cluster Randomized Controlled Trial
Quinn, C. C., Swasey, K. K., Crabbe, J. C. F., Shardell, M. D., Terrin, M. L., Barr, E. A., & Gruber‐Baldini, A. L. (2017) · JMIR mhealth and uhealth · doi:10.2196/mhealth.8910 · Cited by 25
“Diabetes distress is conceptually different from diabetes-related depression, and evaluation and treatment of diabetes distress has clinical utility because moderate to high distress is related to poor diabetes outcomes [10].”
Background
Development and validation of an educational program to enhance sense of coherence in patients with diabetes mellitus type 2.
Odajima, Y., Kawaharada, M., & Wada, N. (2017) · PubMed · doi:10.18999/nagjms.79.3.363 · Cited by 25
Use of patient-reported outcome measures (PROMs) in clinical diabetes consultations: the DiaPROM randomised controlled pilot trial
Hernar, I., Graue, M., Richards, D. A., Strandberg, R. B., Nilsen, R. M., Rekdal, M., Løvaas, K. F., Madsen, T. V., Tell, G. S., & Haugstvedt, A. (2021) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2020-042353 · Cited by 25
Emotional dysfunction associated with diabetes in Mexican adolescents and young adults with type-1 diabetes
Lerman‐Garber, I., Barrón-Uribe, C., Calzada‐León, R., Mercado-Atri, M., Vidal-Tamayo, R., Quintana, S., Hernández, M. E., Ruiz-Reyes, M. D. L. L., Tamez-Gutiérrez, L. E., Nishimura‐Meguro, E., et al. (2003) · Salud Pública de México · doi:10.1590/s0036-36342003000100002 · Cited by 25
Stress, Coping, and Adjustment of Adventitiously Blind Male Veterans with and without Diabetes Mellitus
Upton, L. R., Bush, B. A., & TAYLOR, R. E. (1998) · Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness · doi:10.1177/0145482x9809200908 · Cited by 25
“However, this difference was not associated with differences in adjustment, a finding that conflicts with that of Welch, Jacobson, and Polonsky (1997), who reported that their subjects with ID and NID differed significantly on a measure of emotional functioning in diabetes.”
Result
A pilot evaluation of a group acceptance and commitment therapy‐informed resilience training program for people with diabetes.
Ryan, A. K., Pakenham, K. I., & Burton, N. W. (2020) · Australian Psychologist · doi:10.1111/ap.12429 · Cited by 24
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Bringing the assessment and treatment of diabetes distress into the real world of clinical care: Time for a shift in perspective
Fisher, L., Guzman, S., Polonsky, W. H., & Hessler, D. (2024) · Diabetic Medicine · doi:10.1111/dme.15446 · Cited by 24
“…of each of the five commonly used DD measures is presented in Table 1, displayed in order of year developed: the Problem Areas in Diabetes (PAID), 23 the Diabetes Distress Scale (DDS), 24 the Type 1-Diabetes Distress Scale (T1-DDS), 1 the Type 2 Diabetes Distress Assessment System (T2-DDAS) 25…”
Self-citation
Comprehensive health assessment and five‐yr follow‐up of allogeneic islet transplant recipients
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Interplay between Oral Hypoglycemic Medication Adherence and Quality of Life among Elderly Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Patients
Manan, M. M. (2014) · JOURNAL OF CLINICAL AND DIAGNOSTIC RESEARCH · doi:10.7860/jcdr/2014/10481.5309 · Cited by 25
“[34] Welch GW, Jacobson AM, Polonsky WH.”
Retracted
Dulaglutide improves glucocorticoid-induced hyperglycemia in inpatient care and reduces dose and injection frequency of insulin
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Patient-reported outcomes for diabetes and hypertension care in low- and middle-income countries: A scoping review
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A 12-month longitudinal study examining the shared and unique contributions of self-compassion and psychological inflexibility to distress and quality of life in people with Type 2 Diabetes
Kılıç, A., Hudson, J. L., Scott, W., McCracken, L. M., & Hughes, L. D. (2022) · Journal of Psychosomatic Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2022.110728 · Cited by 32
Prevalence, associations and health outcomes of binge eating in adults with type 1 or type 2 diabetes: Results from Diabetes MILES – The Netherlands
Huisman, S. D., Hendrieckx, C., Bot, M., Pouwer, F., & Nefs, G. (2022) · Diabetic Medicine · doi:10.1111/dme.14953 · Cited by 24
Predictors of quality of life gains among people with type 1 diabetes participating in the Dose Adjustment for Normal Eating (DAFNE) structured education programme
Byrne, M., Newell, J., Coffey, N., Hara, M. C. O., Cooke, D. D., & Dinneen, S. F. (2012) · Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice · doi:10.1016/j.diabres.2012.09.017 · Cited by 25
Depressive temperament, distress, psychological adjustment and depressive symptoms in type 2 diabetes
Góis, C., Akiskal, H. S., Akiskal, K. K., & Figueira, M. L. (2012) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2012.05.028 · Cited by 24
“Not surprisingly, psychological adjustment to T2DM explains 48% of the variance in diabetes-specific distress (Welch et al., 1997) and it also directly correlates with depressive symptoms and metabolic control (Gois et al.”
Background
Psychosocial Patient-Reported Outcomes in Pediatric and Adolescent Diabetes: a Review and Case Example
Corathers, S. D., Mara, C. A., Chundi, P. K., & Kichler, J. (2017) · Current Diabetes Reports · doi:10.1007/s11892-017-0872-5 · Cited by 23
Disease-related emotional distress of Hispanic and non-Hispanic type 2 diabetes patients.
Welch, G. W., Schwartz, C. E., Santiago-Kelley, P., Garb, J., Shayne, R., & Bode, R. K. (2007) · PubMed · Cited by 24
Self-citation
Defining and Measuring Resilience in Children with a Chronic Disease: a Scoping Review
van der Laan, S. E. I., van der Sprenkel, E. E. B., Lenters, V. C., Finkenauer, C., van der Ent, C. K., & Nijhof, S. L. (2023) · Adversity and Resilience Science · doi:10.1007/s42844-023-00092-2 · Cited by 33
Glycemic and Psychosocial Outcomes of Advanced Hybrid Closed-Loop Therapy in Youth With High HbA1c: A Randomized Clinical Trial
Abraham, M. B., Smith, G. J., Dart, J., Clarke, A. D., Bebbington, K. R., Fairchild, J. M., Ambler, G. R., Cameron, F. J., Davis, E. A., & Jones, T. W. (2024) · Diabetes Care · doi:10.2337/dc24-0276 · Cited by 23
Comparison of two low-fat diets, differing in protein and carbohydrate, on psychological wellbeing in adults with obesity and type 2 diabetes: a randomised clinical trial
Watson, N. A., Dyer, K. A., Buckley, J. D., Brinkworth, G. D., Coates, A. M., Parfitt, G., Howe, P. R. C., Noakes, M., & Murphy, K. J. (2018) · Nutrition Journal · doi:10.1186/s12937-018-0367-5 · Cited by 24

Authors: Welch, G. W., Jacobson, A. M., & Polonsky, W. H.
Affiliations: Mental Health Unit, Balboa Medical Center San Diego, California
Joslin Diabetes Center (US)
ORCID: Polonsky, William H
Venue: Diabetes Care
Publisher: American Diabetes Association
Published: 1997-05-01
Volume: 20
Issue: 5
Pages: 760-766
ISSN: 0149-5992 (ISSN-L)
1935-5548
DOI: 10.2337/diacare.20.5.760
OpenAlex: W2134365893
Cited by: 664
References: 0
Citations by year: 2026: 20 · 2025: 20 · 2024: 35 · 2023: 37 · 2022: 49 · 2021: 46 · 2020: 35 · 2019: 37 · 2018: 28 · 2017: 33 · 2016: 23 · 2015: 31 · 2014: 32 · 2013: 25 · 2012: 37
FWCI: 0.71
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Diabetes Care (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: National Institutes of Health (5r01dk027845-14)
National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (DK27845, DK42315, R01DK042315)
Topics: Health Sciences › Medicine › Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism › Diabetes Management and Education
Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
Health Sciences › Nursing › Research and Theory › Health Education and Validation
Keywords: Problem Areas in Diabetes scale, emotional adjustment, type 1 diabetes, type 2 diabetes, discriminant validity, concurrent validity, psychometric properties, coping, health attitudes, insulin-treated diabetes, HbA1c
MeSH terms: Adaptation, Psychological, Adult, Attitude to Health, Demography, Diabetes Mellitus, Diabetes Mellitus, Type 1, Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2, Diet, Diabetic, Education, Emotions, Female, Humans, Hypoglycemic Agents, Insulin, Male, Middle Aged, Surveys and Questionnaires, Socioeconomic Factors, Reproducibility of Results, Discriminant Analysis

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The Problem Areas in Diabetes Scale: An evaluation of its clinical utility

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