The DOI matches its Crossref record; 37 of the 37 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Reconsidering Research on Learning from Media
Abstract
Recent meta-analyses and other studies of media's influence on learning are reviewed. Consistent evidence is found for the generalization that there are no learning benefits to be gained from employing any specific medium to deliver instruction. Research showing performance or time-saving gains from one or another medium are shown to be vulnerable to compelling rival hypotheses concerning the uncontrolled effects of instructional method and novelty. Problems with current media attribute and symbol system theories are described and suggestions made for more promising research directions.
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Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“the efficacy of learning is determined by the instructional method, not the medium through which it is delivered”
From ChatGPT in Education: An Effect in Search of a Cause (2025) · cites this paper as Clark(1983)
In the citing paper
“Clark(1983) argued that media function solely as vehicles for delivering instruction and do not, in themselves, influence student achievement”
From ChatGPT in Education: An Effect in Search of a Cause (2025) · cites this paper as Clark(1983)
In the citing paper
“as we often cannot surgically remove ChatGPT without changing other elements”
From ChatGPT in Education: An Effect in Search of a Cause (2025) · cites this paper as Clark's(1983)
In the citing paper
“Clark(1983) and Kozma(1991) are often cast as adversaries, yet their views are more complementary than contradictory.”
From ChatGPT in Education: An Effect in Search of a Cause (2025) · cites this paper as Clark(1983)
In the citing paper
“specifically the arguments from the media debate that simply introducing a new instructional medium does not improve learning outcomes if the instructional method remains unchanged (Clark, 1983(Clark, , 1994a(Clark, , 1994b)).”
From Looking Beyond the Hype: Understanding the Effects of AI on Learning (2025) · cites this paper as Clark, 1983
In the citing paper
“Hype may have benefits in itself as demonstrated by the novelty effect, where people show increased effort and attention when dealing with media that are new to them (Clark 1983).”
From The Cognitive Affective Model of Immersive Learning (CAMIL): a Theoretical Research-Based Model of Learning in Immersive Virtual Reality (2021) · cites this paper as Clark 1983
Citations
Cites
Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences
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Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences
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Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences (2nd ed.).
Lachenbruch, P. A., & Cohen, J. (1989) · Journal of the American Statistical Association · doi:10.2307/2290095 · Cited by 37,421
Primary, Secondary, and Meta-Analysis of Research
GLASS, G. V. (1976) · Educational Researcher · doi:10.3102/0013189x005010003 · Cited by 4,890
Sæverot, H. (2021) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781003193463-8 · Cited by 3,090
The Handbook of Research on Teaching
Ryans, D. G., & Gage, N. L. (1962) · Journal of Teacher Education · doi:10.1177/002248716201300121 · Cited by 1,975
Keller, F. S. (1968) · Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis · doi:10.1901/jaba.1968.1-79 · Cited by 1,210
Interaction of Media, Cognition, and Learning
Salomon, G. (2012) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203052945 · Cited by 765
Experiments on Mass Communication
Hovland, C. I., & Lumsdaine, A. A. (2017) · Princeton University Press eBooks · doi:10.1515/9781400886807 · Cited by 597
Aptitude, Learning, and Instruction
(2021) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781003163145 · Cited by 559
Research works printed but not linked: 12
- BovyRADefining the psychologically active features of instructional treatments designed to facilitate cue attendance1983AprilPaper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research AssociationMontreal
- CohenJStatistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences1977Rev edNew YorkAcademic Press
- HovlandCLumsdaineAASheffieldFExperiments on mass communication1949Princeton, N.J.Princeton University Press
- LevieWHDickieKTraversRThe analysis and application of mediaThe second handbook of research on teaching1973ChicagoRand McNally
- LumsdaineAGageNInstruments and media of instructionHandbook of research on teaching1963ChicagoRand McNally
- MielkeKQuestioning the questions of ETV researchEducational Broadcasting Review19682615
- MielkeKCommentaryEducational Communications and Technology Journal19802816669
- 10.1177/016146817407500506 · DOI
- RosenshineBTeacher behaviors and student achievement1971LondonNational Foundation for Educational Research in England and Wales
- SalomonGInteraction of media, cognition and learning1979San FranciscoJossey Bass
- ShuellTJSnowREFedericoPMontigueWLearning theory, instructional theory and adaptionAptitude, learning and instruction19802Hillsdale, N.J.Lawrence Erlbaum
- ThorndikeELEducation1912New YorkMacmillan
Cited by
Sorted by citations
(2009) · US Department of Education · Cited by 3,654
Critical thinking, cognitive presence, and computer conferencing in distance education
Garrison, D. R., Anderson, T., & Archer, W. (2001) · American Journal of Distance Education · doi:10.1080/08923640109527071 · Cited by 3,044
Merchant, Z., Goetz, E. T., Cifuentes, L., Keeney-Kennicutt, W., & Davis, T. J. (2014) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2013.07.033 · Cited by 2,109
Media will never influence learning
Clark, R. E. (1994) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/bf02299088 · Cited by 1,893
Self-citationThe Theory and Practice of Online Learning
Anderson, T. D., & Elloumi, F. (2008) · Athabasca University Press eBooks · doi:10.15215/aupress/9781897425084.01 · Cited by 1,861
Metadata
- Authors
- Clark, R. E.
- Affiliations
- University of Southern California (US)
- Corresponding author
- Clark, Richard E.
- Venue
- Review of Educational Research
- Published
- 1983-12
- Volume
- 53
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 445-459
- ISSN
- 0034-6543 (ISSN-L)
- 1935-1046
- OpenAlex
- W2120414497
- Cited by
- 2,715
- References
- 37
- Citations by year
- 2026: 66 · 2025: 60 · 2024: 75 · 2023: 87 · 2022: 88 · 2021: 78 · 2020: 90 · 2019: 77 · 2018: 83 · 2017: 86 · 2016: 81 · 2015: 117 · 2014: 94 · 2013: 112 · 2012: 114
- FWCI
- 34.11
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Review of Educational Research (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Learning Styles and Cognitive Differences
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Keywords
- learning from media, instructional media, media effects on learning, instructional method, novelty effect, learning gains
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