Reconsidering Research on Learning from Media
Abstract
Recent meta-analyses and other studies of media's influence on learning are reviewed. Consistent evidence is found for the generalization that there are no learning benefits to be gained from employing any specific medium to deliver instruction. Research showing performance or time-saving gains from one or another medium are shown to be vulnerable to compelling rival hypotheses concerning the uncontrolled effects of instructional method and novelty. Problems with current media attribute and symbol system theories are described and suggestions made for more promising research directions.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The efficacy of learning is determined by the instructional method, not the medium through which it is delivered.
“the efficacy of learning is determined by the instructional method, not the medium through which it is delivered”
From <scp>ChatGPT</scp> in Education: An Effect in Search of a Cause (2025) · cites this paper as Clark(1983)
Clark (1983) argued that media function solely as vehicles for delivering instruction and do not, in themselves, influence student achievement.
“Clark(1983) argued that media function solely as vehicles for delivering instruction and do not, in themselves, influence student achievement”
From <scp>ChatGPT</scp> in Education: An Effect in Search of a Cause (2025) · cites this paper as Clark(1983)
We often cannot surgically remove ChatGPT without changing other elements.
“as we often cannot surgically remove ChatGPT without changing other elements”
From <scp>ChatGPT</scp> in Education: An Effect in Search of a Cause (2025) · cites this paper as Clark's(1983)
Clark (1983) and Kozma (1991) are often cast as adversaries, yet their views are more complementary than contradictory.
“Clark(1983) and Kozma(1991) are often cast as adversaries, yet their views are more complementary than contradictory.”
From <scp>ChatGPT</scp> in Education: An Effect in Search of a Cause (2025) · cites this paper as Clark(1983)
Simply introducing a new instructional medium does not improve learning outcomes if the instructional method remains unchanged.
“specifically the arguments from the media debate that simply introducing a new instructional medium does not improve learning outcomes if the instructional method remains unchanged (Clark, 1983(Clark, , 1994a(Clark, , 1994b)).”
From Looking Beyond the Hype: Understanding the Effects of AI on Learning (2025) · cites this paper as Clark, 1983
Hype may have benefits as demonstrated by the novelty effect, where people show increased effort and attention when dealing with media that are new to them.
“Hype may have benefits in itself as demonstrated by the novelty effect, where people show increased effort and attention when dealing with media that are new to them (Clark 1983).”
From The Cognitive Affective Model of Immersive Learning (CAMIL): a Theoretical Research-Based Model of Learning in Immersive Virtual Reality (2021) · cites this paper as Clark 1983
Cites
Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences
Muller, K. E., & Cohen, J. (1989) · Technometrics · doi:10.2307/1270020 · Cited by 99,588 · see citing works
Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences
Cohen, J. (1990) · Computers Environment and Urban Systems · doi:10.1016/0198-9715(90)90050-4 · Cited by 65,406 · see citing works
Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences (2nd ed.).
Lachenbruch, P. A., & Cohen, J. (1989) · Journal of the American Statistical Association · doi:10.2307/2290095 · Cited by 37,385 · see citing works
Primary, Secondary, and Meta-Analysis of Research
GLASS, G. V. (1976) · Educational Researcher · doi:10.3102/0013189x005010003 · Cited by 4,890 · see citing works
Sæverot, H. (2021) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781003193463-8 · Cited by 3,090 · see citing works
The Handbook of Research on Teaching
Ryans, D. G., & Gage, N. L. (1962) · Journal of Teacher Education · doi:10.1177/002248716201300121 · Cited by 1,968 · see citing works
Keller, F. S. (1968) · Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis · doi:10.1901/jaba.1968.1-79 · Cited by 1,141 · see citing works
Interaction of Media, Cognition, and Learning
Salomon, G. (2012) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203052945 · Cited by 768 · see citing works
Experiments on Mass Communication
Hovland, C. I., & Lumsdaine, A. A. (2017) · Princeton University Press eBooks · doi:10.1515/9781400886807 · Cited by 597 · see citing works
Aptitude, Learning, and Instruction
(2021) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781003163145 · Cited by 559 · see citing works
Effects of computer-based teaching on secondary school students.
Kulik, J. A., Bangert, R. L., & Williams, G. W. (1983) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.75.1.19 · Cited by 464 · see citing works
Experiments on mass communication.
indicated, N. A. (1949) · Journal of Consulting Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0049583 · Cited by 381 · see citing works
Components of a Psychology of Instruction: Toward a Science of Design
Glaser, R. A. (1976) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/00346543046001001 · Cited by 285 · see citing works
The Effectiveness of Alternative Instructional Media: A Survey
Jamison, D. T., Suppes, P., & Wells, S. J. (1974) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/00346543044001001 · Cited by 264 · see citing works
Schramm, W. L. (1973) · Saber7 UCAB · Cited by 177 · see citing works
Antagonism Between Achievement and Enjoyment in ATI Studies
Clark, R. E. (1982) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00461528209529247 · Cited by 157 · see citing works
Self-citationMedia and Symbols: The Forms of Expression, Communication, and Education
Olson, D. R. (1974) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 143 · see citing works
Reexamining the Methodology of Research on Media and Technology in Education
Salomon, G., & Clark, R. E. (1977) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/00346543047001099 · Cited by 129 · see citing works
Self-citationInstructional Technology and College Teaching
Kulik, C. C., Kulik, J. A., & Cohen, P. A. (1980) · Teaching of Psychology · doi:10.1207/s15328023top0704_1 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
Learning through experience and learning through media
Bruner, J. S., & Olson, D. R. (1973) · Prospects · doi:10.1007/bf02196942 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
A meta-analysis of outcome studies of visual-based instruction
Cohen, P. A., Ebeling, B. J., & Kulik, J. A. (1981) · ECTJ · doi:10.1007/bf02765190 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
Internalization of filmic schematic operations in interaction with learners' aptitudes.
Salomon, G. (1974) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0036753 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
When Do Instructional Methods Make a Difference?
Tobias, S. (1982) · Educational Researcher · doi:10.2307/1174134 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
Dieuzeide, H. (1980) · Prospects · doi:10.1007/bf02193953 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Characteristics of Media Selection Models
Reiser, R. A., & Gagné, R. M. (1982) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/00346543052004499 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Research on audio-tutorial instruction: A meta-analysis of comparative studies
Kulik, J. A., Kulik, C. C., & Cohen, P. A. (1979) · Research in Higher Education · doi:10.1007/bf00975623 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Saracho, O. N. (1982) · American Educational Research Journal · doi:10.3102/00028312019002201 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Alternative designs for instructional technology research
Clark, R. E., & Snow, R. E. (1975) · AV communication review · doi:10.1007/bf02898561 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Self-citationMotion in Instructional Media: Some Subject-Display Mode Interactions
Blake, T. (1977) · Perceptual and Motor Skills · doi:10.2466/pms.1977.44.3.975 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Constructing a taxonomy of media attributes for research purposes
Clark, R. E. (1975) · AV communication review · doi:10.1007/bf02768378 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Self-citationTeacher resistance to computer-assisted instruction
Stimmel, D. T., Connor, J. L., McCaskill, E. O., & Durrett, H. J. (1981) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/bf03207921 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
On a theory of instruction: Why different forms of instruction result in similar knowledge
Olson, D. R. (1972) · Interchange · doi:10.1007/bf02145940 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
A Comparison of Computer-Managed Instruction and Lecture Mode for Teaching Basic Statistics
Dixon, P. N., & Judd, W. A. (1977) · The Journal of Computer Based Instruction · Cited by 16 · see citing works
The Computer as a Socializing Agent: Some Socioaffective Outcomes of CAI.
Hess, R. D. (1970) · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Media and Affect: A Comparison of Video-Tape, Audio-Tape, and Print
Machula, R. S. (1978) · Journal of Educational Technology Systems · doi:10.2190/d8eb-a8qj-cy02-q937 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Selected findings from “The computer as a socializing agent: Some socioaffective outcomes of CAI“
Hess, R. D., & Tenezakis, M. D. (1973) · AV communication review · doi:10.1007/bf02768155 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Ksobiech, K. J. (1976) · AV communication review · doi:10.1007/bf02770054 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
(2009) · US Department of Education · Cited by 3,654 · see citing works
Critical thinking, cognitive presence, and computer conferencing in distance education
Garrison, D. R., Anderson, T., & Archer, W. (2001) · American Journal of Distance Education · doi:10.1080/08923640109527071 · Cited by 3,044 · see citing works
Merchant, Z., Goetz, E. T., Cifuentes, L., Keeney-Kennicutt, W., & Davis, T. J. (2014) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2013.07.033 · Cited by 1,508 · see citing works
Media will never influence learning
Clark, R. E. (1994) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/bf02299088 · Cited by 1,893 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Theory and Practice of Online Learning
Anderson, T. D., & Elloumi, F. (2008) · Athabasca University Press eBooks · doi:10.15215/aupress/9781897425084.01 · Cited by 1,855 · see citing works
What are the learning affordances of 3‐D virtual environments?
Dalgarno, B., & Lee, M. J. W. (2010) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8535.2009.01038.x · Cited by 1,840 · see citing works
Blended learning systems: Definition, current trends, and future directions
Graham, C. R. (2006) · Cited by 1,767 · see citing works
Bernard, R. M., Abrami, P. C., Lou, Y., Borokhovski, E., Wade, A., Wozney, L., Wallet, P. A., Fiset, M., & Huang, B. (2004) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/00346543074003379 · Cited by 1,761 · see citing works
The effectiveness of online and blended learning: A meta-analysis of the empirical literature
Means, B., Toyama, Y., Murphy, R., & Baki, M. (2013) · Teachers College Record: The Voice of Scholarship in Education · doi:10.1177/016146811311500307 · Cited by 1,638 · see citing works
Internet-Based Learning in the Health Professions
Cook, D., Levinson, A. J., Garside, S., Dupras, D. M., Erwin, P. J., & Montori, V. M. (2008) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.300.10.1181 · Cited by 1,552 · see citing works
Multimedia learning: Are we asking the right questions?
Mayer, R. E. (1997) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1207/s15326985ep3201_1 · Cited by 1,533 · see citing works
Dunleavy, M., Dede, C., & Mitchell, R. (2008) · Journal of Science Education and Technology · doi:10.1007/s10956-008-9119-1 · Cited by 1,526 · see citing works
Makransky, G., & Petersen, G. B. (2021) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-020-09586-2 · Cited by 1,438 · see citing works
Kozma, R. B. (1991) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/00346543061002179 · Cited by 1,429 · see citing works
Hamilton, D., McKechnie, J., Edgerton, E., & Wilson, C. (2020) · Journal of Computers in Education · doi:10.1007/s40692-020-00169-2 · Cited by 1,276 · see citing works
Teaching Courses Online: A Review of the Research
Tallent-Runnels, M. K., Thomas, J. A., Lan, W. Y., Cooper, S., Ahern, T. C., Shaw, S. M., & Liu, X. (2006) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/00346543076001093 · Cited by 1,267 · see citing works
Learning science in informal environments : people, places, and pursuits
Bell, P., Lewenstein, B. V., Shouse, A. W., & Feder, M. A. (2009) · Cited by 1,220 · see citing works
Student barriers to online learning: A factor analytic study
Muilenburg, L. Y., & Berge, Z. L. (2005) · Distance Education · doi:10.1080/01587910500081269 · Cited by 1,219 · see citing works
Multimedia Learning: SUBJECT INDEX
Mayer, R. E. (2001) · Cited by 1,175 · see citing works
Will media influence learning? Reframing the debate
Kozma, R. (1994) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/bf02299087 · Cited by 1,155 · see citing works
1. Foundations of Educational Theory for Online Learning
Ally, M. (2008) · Athabasca University Press eBooks · doi:10.15215/aupress/9781897425084.003 · Cited by 1,102 · see citing works
Learning science in immersive virtual reality.
Parong, J., & Mayer, R. E. (2018) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/edu0000241 · Cited by 1,088 · see citing works
Hillman, D. C. A., Willis, D. J., & Gunawardena, C. N. (1994) · American Journal of Distance Education · doi:10.1080/08923649409526853 · Cited by 1,048 · see citing works
The role of social media in higher education classes (real and virtual) – A literature review
Tess, P. A. (2013) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2012.12.032 · Cited by 1,045 · see citing works
Tamim, R. M., Bernard, R. M., Borokhovski, E., Abrami, P. C., & Schmid, R. F. (2011) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/0034654310393361 · Cited by 1,029 · see citing works
Experimental analysis of a web-based training intervention to develop positive psychological capital
Luthans, F., Avey, J. B., & Patera, J. L. (2008) · Academy of Management Learning & Education · doi:10.5465/amle.2008.32712618 · Cited by 900 · see citing works
Learning Strategies and Learning Styles
Schmeck, R. R. (1988) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4899-2118-5 · Cited by 899 · see citing works
A META‐ANALYTIC EXAMINATION OF THE INSTRUCTIONAL EFFECTIVENESS OF COMPUTER‐BASED SIMULATION GAMES
SITZMANN, T. (2011) · Personnel Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.2011.01190.x · Cited by 882 · see citing works
Bernard, R. M., Borokhovski, E., Schmid, R. F., Tamim, R. M., & Abrami, P. C. (2014) · Journal of Computing in Higher Education · doi:10.1007/s12528-013-9077-3 · Cited by 870 · see citing works
Albirini, A. (2005) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2004.10.013 · Cited by 855 · see citing works
THE COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF WEB‐BASED AND CLASSROOM INSTRUCTION: A META‐ANALYSIS
Sitzmann, T., Kraiger, K., STEWART, D., & Wisher, R. A. (2006) · Personnel Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.2006.00049.x · Cited by 812 · see citing works
Cheung, A. C. K., & Slavin, R. E. (2013) · Educational Research Review · doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2013.01.001 · Cited by 792 · see citing works
Mayer, R. E. (2003) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/s0959-4752(02)00016-6 · Cited by 1,337 · see citing works
Linking teacher and student learning to improve professional development in systemic reform
Fishman, B., Marx, R. W., Best, S., & Tal, R. T. (2003) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/s0742-051x(03)00059-3 · Cited by 751 · see citing works
Small Group and Individual Learning with Technology: A Meta-Analysis
Lou, Y., Abrami, P. C., & d’Apollonia, S. (2001) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/00346543071003449 · Cited by 721 · see citing works
Squire, K. D. (2003) · Cited by 714 · see citing works
Natale, A. F. D., Repetto, C., Riva, G., & Villani, D. (2020) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/bjet.13030 · Cited by 700 · see citing works
Rosas, R., Nussbaum, M., Cumsille, P., Marianov, V., Correa, M., Flores, P., Grau, V., Lagos, F., López, X., López, V., et al. (2003) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/s0360-1315(02)00099-4 · Cited by 699 · see citing works
International Handbook of Information Technology in Primary and Secondary Education
Voogt, J. M., & Knezek, G. (2008) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-0-387-73315-9 · Cited by 699 · see citing works
Bai, S., Hew, K. F., & Huang, B. (2020) · Educational Research Review · doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2020.100322 · Cited by 689 · see citing works
AMEE Guide 32: e-Learning in medical education Part 1: Learning, teaching and assessment
Ellaway, R., & Masters, K. (2008) · Medical Teacher · doi:10.1080/01421590802108331 · Cited by 652 · see citing works
A history of instructional design and technology: Part II: A history of instructional design
Reiser, R. A. (2001) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/bf02504928 · Cited by 626 · see citing works
Zhao, Y., Lei, J., Lai, B. Y. C., & Tan, H. S. (2005) · Teachers College Record: The Voice of Scholarship in Education · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9620.2005.00544.x · Cited by 618 · see citing works
Here and now mobile learning: An experimental study on the use of mobile technology
Martin, F., & Ertzberger, J. (2013) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2013.04.021 · Cited by 618 · see citing works
Design-Based Research and Educational Technology: Rethinking Technology and the Research Agenda
Amiel, T., & Reeves, T. C. (2008) · Educational Technology & Society · Cited by 615 · see citing works
Geometry and Spatial Reasoning
Clements, D. H., & Battista, M. T. (2006) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/978-1-60752-874-620251022 · Cited by 604 · see citing works
Emerging Practice and Research in Blended Learning
Graham, C. R. (2015) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203803738.ch21 · Cited by 598 · see citing works
Flipped Classrooms: a Review of Key Ideas and Recommendations for Practice
Delozier, S., & Rhodes, M. G. (2016) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-015-9356-9 · Cited by 598 · see citing works
A Meta-analysis of the Effects of Computer Technology on School Students’ Mathematics Learning
Li, Q., & Ma, X. (2010) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-010-9125-8 · Cited by 558 · see citing works
The reality of virtual schools: A review of the literature
Barbour, M. K., & Reeves, T. C. (2008) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2008.09.009 · Cited by 554 · see citing works
Cook, D. A., Levinson, A. J., Garside, S., Dupras, D. M., Erwin, P. J., & Montori, V. M. (2010) · Academic Medicine · doi:10.1097/acm.0b013e3181d6c319 · Cited by 547 · see citing works
Key Factors for Determining Student Satisfaction in Online Courses
Bolliger, D. U. (2004) · International journal on e-learning · Cited by 536 · see citing works
Video Improves Learning in Higher Education: A Systematic Review
Noetel, M., Griffith, S., Delaney, O., Sanders, T., Parker, P. D., Cruz, B. D. P., & Lonsdale, C. (2021) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/0034654321990713 · Cited by 518 · see citing works
Meyer, O. A., Omdahl, M. K., & Makransky, G. (2019) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2019.103603 · Cited by 515 · see citing works
“Accordingly, media does “ not in fl uence student achievement any more than the truck that delivers our groceries causes changes in our nutrition ” (Clark, 1983, p. 445).”
BackgroundCooperation and the Use of Technology
Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. T. (2013) · doi:10.4324/9781410609519-41 · Cited by 515 · see citing works
STUDENT DISTRESS IN A WEB-BASED DISTANCE EDUCATION COURSE
Hara, N. (2000) · Information Communication & Society · doi:10.1080/13691180010002297 · Cited by 511 · see citing works
Chumley, H. S., Dobbie, A. E., & Alford, C. L. (2002) · Academic Medicine · doi:10.1097/00001888-200210001-00028 · Cited by 509 · see citing works
Designing electronic collaborative learning environments
Kirschner, P. A., Strijbos, J.-W., Kreijns, K., & Beers, P. J. (2004) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/bf02504675 · Cited by 501 · see citing works
Three worlds of CSCL: Can we support CSCL?
van den Berg, E., Blijleven, P. J., Koertshuis, E., & Tebbe, N. M. (2002) · University of Twente Research Information · Cited by 498 · see citing works
Rynes, S. L., Colbert, A. E., & Brown, K. G. (2002) · Human Resource Management · doi:10.1002/hrm.10029 · Cited by 477 · see citing works
Research news and Comment: The World Wide Web: A Technology to Enhance Teaching and Learning?
Owston, R. (1997) · Educational Researcher · doi:10.3102/0013189x026002027 · Cited by 473 · see citing works
Chatbot learning partners: connecting learning experiences, interest and competence
Fryer, L. K., Nakao, K., & Thompson, A. (2019) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2018.12.023 · Cited by 470 · see citing works
Smetana, L. K., & Bell, R. L. (2012) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2011.605182 · Cited by 702 · see citing works
An Entangled Pedagogy: Looking Beyond the Pedagogy—Technology Dichotomy
Fawns, T. (2022) · Postdigital Science and Education · doi:10.1007/s42438-022-00302-7 · Cited by 452 · see citing works
Fryer, L. K., Ainley, M., Thompson, A., Gibson, A., & Sherlock, Z. (2017) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2017.05.045 · Cited by 448 · see citing works
The impact of augmented reality on cognitive load and performance: A systematic review
Buchner, J., Buntins, K., & Kerres, M. (2021) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.12617 · Cited by 446 · see citing works
Klein, H. J., Noe, R. A., & Wang, C. (2006) · Personnel Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.2006.00050.x · Cited by 443 · see citing works
Why Minimally Guided Teaching Techniques Do Not Work: A Reply to Commentaries
SWELLER, J., KIRSCHNER, P. A., & CLARK, R. E. (2007) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00461520701263426 · Cited by 434 · see citing works
Self-citationA systematic review of educational digital storytelling
Wu, J. J., & Chen, D.-T. V. (2019) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2019.103786 · Cited by 415 · see citing works
Modeling units of study from a pedagogical perspective: the pedagogical meta-model behind EML
Koper, R. (2001) · DSpace (Open University in the Netherlands) · Cited by 407 · see citing works
The Influence of ChatGPT on Student Engagement: A Systematic Review and Future Research Agenda
Lo, C. K., Hew, K. F., & Jong, M. S.-Y. (2024) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2024.105100 · Cited by 392 · see citing works
Lo, C. K., Hew, K. F., & Chen, G. (2017) · Educational Research Review · doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2017.08.002 · Cited by 363 · see citing works
Ahn, J. (2011) · Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology · doi:10.1002/asi.21540 · Cited by 356 · see citing works
National Policies that Connect ICT-Based Education Reform to Economic and Social Development
Kozma, R. (2005) · Human Technology · doi:10.17011/ht/urn.2005355 · Cited by 349 · see citing works
Lo, C. K., & Hew, K. F. (2018) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2018.1541910 · Cited by 342 · see citing works
Computer-assisted intervention for children with low numeracy skills
Räsänen, P., Salminen, J. B., Wilson, A. J., Pirjo Aunio, A., & Dehaene, S. (2009) · Cognitive Development · doi:10.1016/j.cogdev.2009.09.003 · Cited by 338 · see citing works
A history of instructional design and technology: Part I: A history of instructional media
Reiser, R. A. (2001) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/bf02504506 · Cited by 325 · see citing works
Multimedia information and learning
Najjar, L. J. (1996) · doi:10.5555/247323.247328 · Cited by 323 · see citing works
Fishman, B., Konstantopoulos, S., Kubitskey, B. W., Vath, R. J., Park, G., Johnson, H., & Edelson, D. C. (2013) · Journal of Teacher Education · doi:10.1177/0022487113494413 · Cited by 320 · see citing works
The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning: The Multimedia Principle
Butcher, K. R. (2014) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139547369.010 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
The effects of technology use in postsecondary education: A meta-analysis of classroom applications
Schmid, R. F., Bernard, R. M., Borokhovski, E., Tamim, R. M., Abrami, P. C., Surkes, M. A., Wade, C. A., & Woods, J. (2014) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2013.11.002 · Cited by 313 · see citing works
Meyer, J., Jansen, T., Schiller, R., Liebenow, L. W., Steinbach, M., Horbach, A., & Fleckenstein, J. (2024) · Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.caeai.2023.100199 · Cited by 311 · see citing works
Luo, H., Li, G., Feng, Q., Yang, Y., & Zuo, M. (2021) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.12538 · Cited by 311 · see citing works
A Meta-Analysis of the Effects of Feedback in Computer-Based Instruction
Azevedo, R., & Bernard, R. M. (1995) · Journal of Educational Computing Research · doi:10.2190/9lmd-3u28-3a0g-ftqt · Cited by 308 · see citing works
How features of educational technology applications affect student reading outcomes: A meta-analysis
Cheung, A. C. K., & Slavin, R. E. (2012) · Educational Research Review · doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2012.05.002 · Cited by 307 · see citing works
Use of Web 2.0 technologies in K-12 and higher education: The search for evidence-based practice
Hew, K. F., & Cheung, W. S. (2012) · Educational Research Review · doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2012.08.001 · Cited by 307 · see citing works
On-Line Course Effectiveness: An Analysis of Student Interactions and Perceptions of Learning
Rovai, A. P., & Barnum, K. T. (2007) · DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) · Cited by 305 · see citing works
THE IMPORTANCE OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN TEACHING
Stošić, L. V. (2015) · International Journal of Cognitive Research in Science Engineering and Education · doi:10.23947/2334-8496-2015-3-1-111-114 · Cited by 302 · see citing works
Educational Research in the Internet Age: Examining the Role of Individual Characteristics
Hartley, K., & Bendixen, L. D. (2001) · Educational Researcher · doi:10.3102/0013189x030009022 · Cited by 301 · see citing works
Learning and Building Together in an Immersive Virtual World
Roussos, M., Johnson, A. E., Moher, T. G., Leigh, J., Vasilakis, C., & Barnes, C. (1999) · PRESENCE Virtual and Augmented Reality · doi:10.1162/105474699566215 · Cited by 297 · see citing works
Cui, G., Lockee, B. B., & Meng, C. (2012) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-012-9192-1 · Cited by 292 · see citing works
Handbook of Emerging Technologies for Learning
Siemens, G., & Tittenberger, P. (2009) · Cited by 286 · see citing works
Web-based teaching and learner control: a research review
Lin, B., & Hsieh, C. (2001) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/s0360-1315(01)00060-4 · Cited by 283 · see citing works
Use of audio podcast in K-12 and higher education: a review of research topics and methodologies
Hew, K. F. (2008) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-008-9108-3 · Cited by 283 · see citing works
Animation in computer-based instruction
Rieber, L. P. (1990) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/bf02298250 · Cited by 283 · see citing works
The Efficacy of Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI): A Meta-Analysis
Fletcher‐Flinn, C. M., & Gravatt, B. (1995) · Journal of Educational Computing Research · doi:10.2190/51d4-f6l3-jqhu-9m31 · Cited by 280 · see citing works
Design and Use of a Rubric to Assess and Encourage Interactive Qualities in Distance Courses
Roblyer, M. D., & Wiencke, W. R. (2003) · American Journal of Distance Education · doi:10.1207/s15389286ajde1702_2 · Cited by 279 · see citing works
Ross, S. M., Morrison, G. R., & Lowther, D. L. (2010) · Contemporary Educational Technology · doi:10.30935/cedtech/5959 · Cited by 279 · see citing works
Song, S. H., & Keller, J. M. (2001) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/bf02504925 · Cited by 277 · see citing works
Murphy, E., Rodríguez‐Manzanares, M. A., & Barbour, M. (2011) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8535.2010.01112.x · Cited by 271 · see citing works
- Authors
- Clark, R. E.
- Affiliations
- University of Southern California (US)
- Corresponding author
- Clark, Richard E.
- Venue
- Review of Educational Research
- Published
- 1983-12
- Volume
- 53
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 445-459
- ISSN
- 0034-6543 (ISSN-L)
- 1935-1046
- OpenAlex
- W2120414497
- Cited by
- 2,715
- References
- 37
- Citations by year
- 2026: 66 · 2025: 60 · 2024: 75 · 2023: 87 · 2022: 88 · 2021: 78 · 2020: 90 · 2019: 77 · 2018: 83 · 2017: 86 · 2016: 81 · 2015: 117 · 2014: 94 · 2013: 112 · 2012: 114
- FWCI
- 34.11
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Review of Educational Research (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Learning Styles and Cognitive Differences
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Keywords
- learning from media, instructional media, media effects on learning, instructional method, novelty effect, learning gains
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
