The Effectiveness of Distance Education across Virginia's Community Colleges: Evidence from Introductory College-Level Math and English Courses
Abstract
Although online learning is rapidly expanding in the community college setting, there is little evidence regarding its effectiveness among community college students. In the current study, the authors used a statewide administrative data set to estimate the effects of taking one's first college-level math or English course online rather than face to face, in terms of both course retention and course performance. Several empirical strategies were used to minimize the effects of student self-selection, including multilevel propensity score. The findings indicate a robust negative impact of online course taking for both subjects. Furthermore, by comparing the results of two matching methods, the authors conclude that within-school matching on the basis of a multilevel model addresses concerns regarding selection issues more effectively than does traditional propensity score matching across schools.
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In some large-scale multi-institution studies, results suggest that online coursework may hinder subsequent semester re-enrollment and students who took a higher proportion of online courses were less likely to graduate or transfer to a senior college.
“In some large-scale multi-institution studies (Jaggars & Xu, 2010; Xu & Jaggars, 2011a, 2011b), results suggest that online coursework may hinder subsequent semester re-enrollment and students who took a higher proportion of online courses were less likely to graduate or transfer to a senior college.”
From Post-secondary online learning in the U.S.: an integrative review of the literature on undergraduate student characteristics (2022) · cites this paper as Xu & Jaggars, 2011b
Xu and Jaggars (2011b) report lower grades for online English and Math "gatekeeper" courses.
“Xu and Jaggars (2011b) report lower grades for online English and Math “gatekeeper” courses”
From Post-secondary online learning in the U.S.: an integrative review of the literature on undergraduate student characteristics (2022) · cites this paper as Xu and Jaggars (2011b)
Online and face-to-face modalities for introductory math and English indicated a negative correlation between online modality and both retention and course performance.
“Xu and Jaggars (2011) found online and face-to-face modalities for introductory math and English indicated a negative correlation between online modality and both retention and course performance.”
From Online or Face to Face? The Modality of a Learning Strategies Course and Impacts on Grades, GPA, Retention and Persistence for Developmental Students (2026) · cites this paper as Xu and Jaggars (2011)
Taking online developmental courses may negatively impact future online enrollment.
“Research also suggests that taking online developmental courses may negatively impact future online enrollment (Xu & Jaggars, 2011b*).”
From Post-secondary online learning in the U.S.: an integrative review of the literature on undergraduate student characteristics (2022) · cites this paper as Xu & Jaggars, 2011b*
Developmental students may be more vulnerable.
“Since some research indicate developmental students may be more vulnerable (Xu & Jaggers, 2011), this population is particularly worthy of examination.”
From Online or Face to Face? The Modality of a Learning Strategies Course and Impacts on Grades, GPA, Retention and Persistence for Developmental Students (2026) · cites this paper as Xu & Jaggers, 2011
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- Authors
- Xu, D., & Jaggars, S. S.
- Affiliations
- Columbia University (US)
- Venue
- Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis
- Published
- 2011-09
- Volume
- 33
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 360-377
- ISSN
- 0162-3737 (ISSN-L)
- 1935-1062
- OpenAlex
- W1974590415
- Cited by
- 239
- References
- 44
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 8 · 2024: 18 · 2023: 15 · 2022: 24 · 2021: 24 · 2020: 19 · 2019: 26 · 2018: 18 · 2017: 9 · 2016: 20 · 2015: 22 · 2014: 10 · 2013: 18 · 2012: 5
- FWCI
- 50.80
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Education › Online and Blended Learning
- Social Sciences › Education › School Choice and Performance
- Social Sciences › Education › Higher Education Research Studies
- Keywords
- distance education, online learning, community colleges, course retention, course performance, student self-selection, Virginia community colleges
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
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