Indicators of dehydration in healthy 4- to 5-day-old dairy calves deprived of feed and water for 24 hours
Open accessAbstract
Our objective was to identify practical indicators of calf dehydration that could be used in an industry context. Eleven healthy 4-d-old commercial dairy calves were fed 2 L of mixed colostrum, then deprived of food and water for 24 h. Total body water was determined in the fed state using the deuterium dilution method. Body weight, along with a range of behavioral and physiological variables, was recorded 1 h after feeding, then at 90-min intervals through to 24 h. Blood samples were collected at every second sampling to assess changes in plasma hemoglobin, hematocrit, and osmolality. Linear mixed-effects models were used to explore associations between hydration status (% body water) and outcome variables. All calves remained bright and alert with good suckling reflexes throughout the 24-h period. After 24 h, total body water had decreased by an average of 8.4% (standard error 1.18), consistent with mild to moderate dehydration. Skin tent return time, capillary refill time, and detectable enophthalmos were associated with hydration status. Calves with skin tent return times of 3 s or longer were 4.4 percentage points less hydrated than those with return times of less than 3 s. Similarly, a capillary refill time of 3 s or longer was associated with a 4.3 percentage point reduction in hydration compared with refill times of less than 3 s. Calves with detectable enophthalmos (≥1 mm) were 3.5 percentage points less hydrated than those without enophthalmos. The skin tent, capillary refill, and enophthalmos tests are all relatively simple to perform and, although requiring the calf to be briefly restrained, can easily be performed by a single operator. The outcome of these tests was relatively consistent, in that calves above the threshold in any test were 3.5 to 4.5% less hydrated than calves below the threshold. As such, these tests may be of practical utility to identify calves with mild to moderate dehydration in an industry setting.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The impact of altered physiological status and health of calves during and after transport is triggered by a combination of factors including reduced feed and water intake, increased physiological and physical stressors, muscle fatigue and immunosuppression.
“The impact of altered physiological status and health of calves during and after transport has been well documented and has been shown to be triggered by a combination of factors including a reduction in feed and water intake, and increased physiological and physical stressors, muscle fatigue and immunosuppression [3–9].”
From Observational study: effect of varying transport durations and feed withdrawal on the physiological status and health of dairy calves (2025) · cites this paper as [3]
The Effect of Time on Outcome Variables section reports reduced hydration after 24 hours without food or water, supporting that part of the claim. The Discussion says the calves were not exposed to transport-related stressors during the deprivation period; the paper does not establish muscle fatigue or immunosuppression as causes of health changes during or after transport. Page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredKells et al. (2020) proposed that PCV likely changes noticeably only in cases of severe dehydration.
“and proposed that PCV likely changes noticeably only in cases of severe dehydration.”
From A randomized controlled trial investigating the effect of transport duration and age at transport on surplus dairy calves: Part II. Impact on hematological variables. (2023) · cites this paper as Kells et al., 2020
The Discussion (page not available) reports no significant change in hematocrit (PCV) in calves with mild to moderate dehydration and says it is typically elevated in clinically significant dehydration. It does not establish that noticeable PCV changes occur only in severe dehydration; the study did not test severely dehydrated calves. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe fact that external scoring of hydration (skin tent) is not always directly related to other methods of measuring dehydration may indicate a priority toward preserving blood volume over subcutaneous tissues and that skin tent is likely an indicator of early-stage dehydration.
“The fact that the external scoring of hydration (i.e., skin tent) is not always directly related to other methods of measuring dehydration (34, 35) may indicate a priority toward preserving blood volume over subcutaneous tissues and that skin tent is likely an indicator of early-stage dehydration.”
From Effect of source and journey on physiological variables in calves transported by road and ferry between Ireland and the Netherlands (2023) · cites this paper as [35]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Clinical Biochemistry of Domestic Animals
Lumsden, J. H. (1980) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/c2013-0-10929-4 · Cited by 1,803 · see citing works
Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base Disorders in Small Animal Practice
DiBartola, S. P. (2012) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/c2009-0-60133-1 · Cited by 351 · see citing works
Clinical Examination of Farm Animals
Jackson, P., & Cockcroft, P. (2002) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470752425 · Cited by 296 · see citing works
Saunders comprehensive veterinary dictionary
Blood, D. C., & Studdert, V. P. (1994) · Cited by 246 · see citing works
Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base Balance
Carlson, G. P., & Bruss, M. (2008) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-370491-7.00017-9 · Cited by 176 · see citing works
Treatment of Calf Diarrhea: Oral Fluid Therapy
Smith, G. (2009) · Veterinary Clinics of North America Food Animal Practice · doi:10.1016/j.cvfa.2008.10.006 · Cited by 148 · see citing works
Daily and estrous rhythmicity of body temperature in domestic cattle
Piccione, G., CAOLA, G., & Refinetti, R. (2003) · BMC Physiology · doi:10.1186/1472-6793-3-7 · Cited by 142 · see citing works
Body Composition Analysis of Animals: A Handbook of Non-Destructive Methods
Speakman, J. R. (2008) · Cited by 122 · see citing works
Clinical and laboratory assessment of hydration status of neonatal calves with diarrhea
Constable, P. D., Walker, P. G., Morin, D. E., & Foreman, J. H. (1998) · Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association · doi:10.2460/javma.1998.212.07.991 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
Risk factors associated with mortality at a milk-fed veal calf facility: A prospective cohort study
Renaud, D. L., Duffield, T. F., LeBlanc, S. J., Ferguson, S., Haley, D. B., & Kelton, D. F. (2018) · Journal of Dairy Science · doi:10.3168/jds.2017-13581 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
Breathing around the clock: an overview of the circadian pattern of respiration
Mortola, J. P. (2004) · European Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1007/s00421-003-0978-0 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
Effect on young calves of a one-hour feeding stop during a 19-hour road journey.
Knowles, T. G., Brown, S. N., Edwards, J. E., Phillips, A. J., & Warriss, P. D. (1999) · Veterinary Record · doi:10.1136/vr.144.25.687 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Naylor, J. Μ. (1989) · PubMed · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Walker, P. G., Constable, P. D., Morin, D. E., Drackley, J. K., Foreman, J. H., & THURMON, J. C. (1998) · Europe PMC (PubMed Central) · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Changes in plasma composition in calves surviving or dying from diarrhoea
Groutides, C. P., & Michell, A. R. (1990) · British Veterinary Journal · doi:10.1016/s0007-1935(11)80003-5 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
DiBartola, S. P., & Bateman, S. W. (2011) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-1-4377-0654-3.00021-4 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Lambs show changes in ear posture when experiencing pain
Guesgen, M. J., Beausoleil, N. J., Minot, E., Stewart, M., Stafford, K., & Morel, P. (2016) · Animal Welfare · doi:10.7120/09627286.25.2.171 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Self-citationRisk factors for bobby calf mortality across the New Zealand dairy supply chain
Boulton, A. C., Kells, N. J., Cogger, N., Johnson, C. B., O’Connor, C., Webster, J., Palmer, A., & Beausoleil, N. J. (2020) · Preventive Veterinary Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.prevetmed.2019.104836 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Self-citationFeeding and sleep patterns of cows prior to and post parturition
Ruckebusch, Y. (1975) · Applied Animal Ethology · doi:10.1016/0304-3762(75)90021-8 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Hyperosmotic oral replacement fluid for diarrheic calves
Jones, R., Phillips, R. W., & Cleek, J. L. (1984) · Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association · doi:10.2460/javma.1984.184.12.1501 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Global assessment of the emergency patient
Aldrich, J. (2005) · Veterinary Clinics of North America Small Animal Practice · doi:10.1016/j.cvsm.2004.10.013 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Şentürk, S. (2003) · Zentralblatt für Veterinärmedizin Reihe A · doi:10.1046/j.1439-0442.2003.t01-1-00488.x · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Comparison of peripheral and core temperatures in anaesthetized hypovolaemic sheep
Mansel, J. C., Shaw, D. J., STRACHAN, F. A., Gray, A. R., & Clutton, R. E. (2007) · Veterinary Anaesthesia and Analgesia · doi:10.1111/j.1467-2995.2007.00358.x · Cited by 9 · see citing works
The General Clinical Examination of Cattle
S, P. G. G. J. B., & Cockcroft, V. P. D. (2002) · doi:10.1002/9780470752425.ch2 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
1 of the 25 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Research works printed but not linked: 2
- J. J. Kaneko, J. W. Harvey, and M. L. Bruss, ed. Academic Press, San Diego, CA.
- S. P. DiBar- tola, ed. W.B. Saunders, St. Louis, MO.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Welfare of cattle during transport
(AHAW), E. P. O. A. H. A. W., Nielsen, S. S., Alvarez, J., Bicout, D. J., Calistri, P., Canali, E., Drewe, J. A., Garin‐Bastuji, B., Gonzales Rojas, J. L., Gortázar Schmidt, C., et al. (2022) · EFSA Journal · doi:10.2903/j.efsa.2022.7442 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Invited review: The welfare of young calves transported by road
Roadknight, N., Mansell, P., Jongman, E., Courtman, N., & Fisher, A. (2021) · Journal of Dairy Science · doi:10.3168/jds.2020-19346 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Boyle, L. A., & Mee, J. F. (2021) · Frontiers in Veterinary Science · doi:10.3389/fvets.2021.645537 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Goetz, H. M., Creutzinger, K. C., Kelton, D. F., Costa, J. H. C., Winder, C. B., & Renaud, D. L. (2023) · Journal of Dairy Science · doi:10.3168/jds.2022-22366 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Battini, M., Renna, M., Giammarino, M., Battaglini, L. M., & Mattiello, S. (2021) · Frontiers in Veterinary Science · doi:10.3389/fvets.2021.731927 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Goetz, H. M., Creutzinger, K. C., Kelton, D. F., Costa, J. H. C., Winder, C. B., Gomez, D. E., & Renaud, D. L. (2023) · Journal of Dairy Science · doi:10.3168/jds.2022-22367 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Botelho, N., Vieira‐Pinto, M., Batchelli, P., Pallisera, J., & Dalmau, A. (2020) · Animals · doi:10.3390/ani10081415 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Cramer, C., Machuca, E., Roman-Muniz, I. N., & Edwards-Callaway, L. (2023) · Journal of Dairy Science · doi:10.3168/jds.2023-23886 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
van Dijk, L. L., Siegmann, S., Field, N. L., Sugrue, K., van Reenen, C. G., Bokkers, E. A. M., Sayers, G., & Conneely, M. (2023) · Frontiers in Veterinary Science · doi:10.3389/fvets.2023.1238734 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“, skin tent) is not always directly related to other methods of measuring dehydration (34, 35) may indicate a priority toward preserving blood volume over subcutaneous tissues and that skin tent is likely an indicator of early-stage dehydration.”
BackgroundBuczinski, S., Fecteau, G., Cichocki, M., Ferraro, S., Arsenault, J., Chorfi, Y., Costa, M., Dubuc, J., Francoz, D., Rousseau, M., et al. (2022) · Journal of Dairy Science · doi:10.3168/jds.2022-21806 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Fitness of calves born from in vitro-produced fresh and cryopreserved embryos
Gómez, E., Murillo, A., Carrocera, S., Pérez-Jánez, J. J., Benedito, J. L., Martín-González, D., & Gimeno, I. (2022) · Frontiers in Veterinary Science · doi:10.3389/fvets.2022.1006995 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Giannitti, F., Machado, M., Silveira, C. D. S., Cibils‐Stewart, X., Baráibar, N., Queiroz-Machado, C. R. R., Poppenga, R. H., Menchaca, A., Uzal, F. A., García, J. A., et al. (2024) · Veterinary Pathology · doi:10.1177/03009858241231557 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Palmer, A. L., Beausoleil, N. J., Boulton, A. C., & Cogger, N. (2021) · Animals · doi:10.3390/ani11082467 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Self-citationSiegmann, S., van Dijk, L. L., Field, N. L., Sayers, G., Sugrue, K., Gort, G., van Reenen, C. G., Bokkers, E. A. M., & Conneely, M. (2025) · Journal of Dairy Science · doi:10.3168/jds.2024-26219 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Salivary pH, but not conductivity, is an indicator of diarrhea in neonatal calves
Riley, B. B., Corbishley, A., Haskell, M. J., Duthie, C.-A., Macrae, A., Burrough, E., & Mason, C. (2024) · Frontiers in Veterinary Science · doi:10.3389/fvets.2024.1483890 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Cockram, M. S., Stryhn, H., Abdallah, A., & Buczinski, S. (2024) · Journal of Dairy Science · doi:10.3168/jds.2024-24769 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
van Dijk, L. L., Siegmann, S., Field, N. L., Sugrue, K., van Reenen, C. G., Bokkers, E. A. M., Conneely, M., & Sayers, G. (2025) · Irish Veterinary Journal · doi:10.1186/s13620-025-00287-2 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“Dehydration did not appear to be a standout complication in this study and was in line with prior research highlighting inconsistencies on blood electrolytes, total protein and blood urea during long transport and fasting [3, 12, 30–32].”
van Dijk, L. L., Siegmann, S., Bennett, P., Sugrue, K., van Reenen, C. G., Bokkers, E. A. M., Sayers, G., Conneely, M., & Field, N. L. (2025) · animal · doi:10.1016/j.animal.2025.101561 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Ertürk, A., & Sevinç, M. (2025) · BMC Veterinary Research · doi:10.1186/s12917-025-04759-z · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Kurek, J., Liegsalz, T. M., Vorndran, A. M., Kurek, A., Huber, V., Hammerl, G., Spiekers, H., & Steinhoff‐Wagner, J. (2025) · Journal of Dairy Science · doi:10.3168/jds.2025-27130 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Changes in Whole Blood Parameters in Beef Heifers May Contribute to Delayed Pubertal Attainment
Keane, J. A. (2021) · Lincoln (University of Nebraska)
Franco, A. M., da Silva, Á. E. M., de Moura, F. H., Norris, A. B., Roloson, S. B., Gerrard, D. E., Mello, A. S. D., & Fonseca, M. A. (2023) · Translational Animal Science · doi:10.1093/tas/txad127
Dehydration, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base Imbalance in Cattle
Filho, L. C. F. B., Filho, J. D. R., Ramos, T. R. R., & Rocha, K. C. (2026) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-52133-1_382-1
- Authors
- Kells, N. J., Beausoleil, N. J., Johnson, C. B., Chambers, J. P., O'Connor, C., Webster, J., Laven, R., & Cogger, N.
- Affiliations
- Massey University (NZ)
- Corresponding author
- Kells, N.J.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Journal of Dairy Science
- Publisher
- American Dairy Science Association
- Published
- 2020-12
- Volume
- 103
- Issue
- 12
- Pages
- 11820-11832
- ISSN
- 0022-0302 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W3093553240
- Cited by
- 23
- References
- 25
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 5 · 2024: 3 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 3 · 2021: 5 · 2020: 1
- FWCI
- 3.34
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Journal of Dairy Science (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Massey Research Online (Massey University) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Veterinary › Small Animals › Animal health and immunology
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Animal Science and Zoology › Effects of Environmental Stressors on Livestock
- Health Sciences › Veterinary › Small Animals › Animal Behavior and Welfare Studies
- Keywords
- dehydration, dairy calves, hydration status, capillary refill time, enophthalmos, total body water, colostrum feeding, fluid deprivation, plasma osmolality, hematocrit, hemoglobin, dehydration assessment
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Animal Feed, Animals, Newborn, Body Weight, Cattle, Colostrum, Dehydration, Diet, Female, Food Deprivation, Health Status, Male, Pregnancy, Water
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
