CoChat
Sign Up
Cited by 76Stress and Burnout ResearchOccupational Health and BurnoutWorkplace Health and Well-being

Risk factors for stress among police officers: A systematic literature review

Open access
Galanis, Petros, Fragkou, Despoina, Katsoulas, Theodoros A.·2021·Work
DOI 10.3233/wor-213455
Open this paper in CoChat — free accountOpen PDF

Abstract

BACKGROUND: Stress is common among police personnel leading to several negative consequences. OBJECTIVE: We performed a systematic literature review to identify risk factors for stress among police officers. METHODS: We searched PubMed and Scopus electronic databases through to July 2018 and we conducted this review according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) statement. The Newcastle-Ottawa scale was used for studies quality assessment. RESULTS: After selection, 29 cross-sectional studies met the inclusion criteria and included in the review. The average quality of studies was low since no study was rated as having low risk of bias, three studies (10.3%) as moderate risk and 26 studies (89.7%) were rated as having high risk of bias. Stress risk factors were summarized in the following categories: demographic characteristics; job characteristics; lifestyle factors; negative coping strategies and negative personality traits. CONCLUSIONS: Identification of stress risk factors is the first step to create and adopt the appropriate interventions to decrease stress among police personnel. The early identification of police officers at higher risk and the appropriate screening for mental health disorders is crucial to prevent disease and promote quality of life.

The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.

Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.

A few free checks a day · papers already verified open instantly · results are public

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.3233/wor-213455

Cites

11 of 11 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Claims the paper makes

The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.

Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.

A few free checks a day · papers already verified open instantly · results are public

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • Police officers who worked in big cities were more prone to higher levels of stress and posttraumatic stress disorder as they were more frequently exposed to violent and extreme situations.

    “officers who worked in big cities were more prone to higher levels of stress and posttraumatic stress disorder as they were more frequently exposed to violent and extreme situations”

    From Psychosocial risk and protective factors associated with burnout in police officers: A systematic review (2023) · cites this paper as Galanis et al., 2021

    The Discussion reports that officers working in large cities experienced more stress and suggests that frequent exposure to critical incidents may explain it. It also says such incidents may predispose officers to post-traumatic stress disorder, but does not report that big-city officers had higher PTSD levels than officers elsewhere. (LLM, conf=0.84)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Police officers who are more suspicious, impatient, worried, and introverted are likely to experience higher levels of burnout compared to those who show higher emotional stability, are more open to new experiences, experience more positive emotional states, and are psychologically more robust.

    “Therefore, police officers who are more suspicious, impatient, worried, and introverted are likely to experience higher levels of burnout compared to those who show higher emotional stability, are more open to new experiences, experience more positive emotional states, and are psychologically more robust (Galanis et al., 2021; Sherwood et al., 2019).”

    From Psychosocial risk and protective factors associated with burnout in police officers: A systematic review (2023) · cites this paper as Galanis et al., 2021

    Section 3.10 (page not available) associates worrying, introversion, and decreased resilience with higher stress among police officers; the Discussion likewise links resilient traits with lower stress. The paper does not establish the claimed comparison in burnout levels or address suspicion, impatience, or openness to new experiences as stated. (LLM, conf=0.86)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • A systematic review on risk factors of police officer's stress (Galanis et al., 2021) reported that police officers that used negative coping such as denial, avoidance, self-blame, distraction, lack of planning, lack of control and humour experienced higher levels of stress.

    “A systematic review on risk factors of police officer ' s stress (Galanis et al., 2021) reported similar findings, in which police officers that used negative coping such as denial, avoidance, self-blame, distraction, lack of planning, lack of control and humour experienced higher levels of stress, whereas planning, immediate response to the problem, and seeking help from others wer”

    From Psychosocial risk and protective factors associated with burnout in police officers: A systematic review (2023) · cites this paper as Galanis et al., 2021

    Section 3.9 reports that negative coping strategies, including denial, avoidance, self-blame, self-distraction, lack of planning, and lack of control, increased stress among police officers. It lists **lack of humour**, not humour, as a risk factor. Page numbers are not provided in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.91)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • A review conducted with police officers (Galanis et al., 2021) had previously reported that stress increased with age.

    “A review conducted with police officers (Galanis et al., 2021) had previously reported that stress increased with age, although a meta-analytical study revealed that age does not appear to have a significant relationship with burnout (Aguayo et al., 2017).”

    From Psychosocial risk and protective factors associated with burnout in police officers: A systematic review (2023) · cites this paper as Galanis et al., 2021

  • A systematic review on risk factors of police officer's stress (Galanis et al., 2021) reported that planning, immediate response to the problem, and seeking help from others were good strategies against stressful situations.

    “A systematic review on risk factors of police officer ' s stress (Galanis et al., 2021) reported similar findings, in which police officers that used negative coping such as denial, avoidance, self-blame, distraction, lack of planning, lack of control and humour experienced higher levels of stress, whereas planning, immediate response to the problem, and seeking help from others wer”

    From Psychosocial risk and protective factors associated with burnout in police officers: A systematic review (2023) · cites this paper as Galanis et al., 2021

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

The self-check needs the paper’s full text.

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 88

  1. Butler G. Definitions of stress. Occas Pap R Coll Gen Pract. 1993;61:1-5.
  2. Monroe SM. Modern approaches to conceptualizing and measuring human life stress. Annu Rev Clin Psychol. 2008;4:33-52.
  3. Lazarus RS FS. Stress, appraisal, and coping. New York: Springer-Verlag; 1984.
  4. Weiner H. Perturbing the organism: the biology of stressful experience. Chicago: University Chicago Press; 1992.
  5. Decker A, Askar H, Tattan M, Taichman R, Wang HL. The assessment of stress, depression, and inflammation as a collective risk factor for periodontal diseases: a systematic review. Clin Oral Investig. 2019.
  6. Sui H, Sun N, Zhan L, Lu X, Chen T, Mao X. Association between Work-Related Stress and Risk for Type 2 Diabetes: A Systematic Review and Meta- Analysis of Prospective Cohort Studies. PloS one. 2016;11(8):e0159978.
  7. Backé EM SA, Latza U, Rossnagel K, Schumann B. The role of psychosocial stress at work for the development of cardiovascular diseases: a systematic review. Arch Occup Environ Health. 2012;85(1):67-79.
  8. Guthrie R, Ciccarelli M, Babic A. Work-related stress in Australia: The effects of legislative interventions and the cost of treatment. Int J Law Psychiatry. 2010;33(2):101- 15.
  9. Fisher S. Life change, personal control and disease. South African Journal of Psychology. 1996;26(1):16-22.
  10. Dohrenwend BS, Krasnoff L, Askenasy AR, Dohrenwend BP. The Psychiatric Epidemiology Research Interview Life Events Scale. In: Goldberg L, Breznitz S, editors. Handbook of Stress: Theoretical and Clinical Aspects. New York: Free Press; 1988.
  11. Leuner B, Shors T. Stress, anxiety, and dendritic spines: what are the connections? Neuroscience. 2013;251:108- 19.
  12. Skogstad M, Skorstad M, Lie A, Conradi HS, Heir T, Weisæth L. Work-related post-traumatic stress disorder. Occupational Medicine. 2013;63(3):175-82.
  13. Stuart H. Suicidality among police. Current Opinion in Psychiatry. 2008;21(5):505-9.
  14. Houdmont J, Randall R. Working hours and common mental disorders in English police officers. Occupational Medicine. 2016;66(9):713-8.
  15. Nelson KV, Smith AP. Occupational stress, coping and mental health in Jamaican police officers. Occupational Medicine (Oxford, England). 2016;66(6):488-91.
  16. Seok JM, Cho JH, Jeon WJ, Ahn JO. Risk factors for fatigue and stress among Korean police officers. Journal of Physical Therapy Science. 2015;27(5):1401-5.
  17. Berg AM, Hem E, Lau B, Haseth K, Ekeberg O. Stress in the Norwegian police service. Occupational Medicine (Oxford, England). 2005;55(2):113-20.
  18. Alexopoulos EC, Palatsidi V, Tigani X, Darviri C. Explor- ing stress levels, job satisfaction, and quality of life in a sample of police officers in Greece. Safety and Health at Work. 2014;5(4):210-5.
  19. Fekedulegn D, Burchfiel CM, Hartley TA, Andrew ME, Charles LE, Tinney-Zara CA, et al. Shiftwork and sick- ness absence among police officers: the BCOPS study. Chronobiology International. 2013;30(7):930-41.
  20. Fox J, Desai MM, Britten K, Lucas G, Luneau R, Rosen- thal MS. Mental-health conditions, barriers to care, and productivity loss among officers in an urban police depart- ment. Connecticut Medicine. 2012;76(9):525-31.
  21. Körlin J, Alexanderson K, Svedberg P. Sickness absence among women and men in the police: A systematic lit- erature review. Scandinavian Journal of Public Health. 2009;37(3):310-9.
  22. Lipp MEN. Stress and quality of life of senior Brazil- ian police officers. Spanish Journal of Psychology. 2009;12(2):593-603.
  23. Magnavita N, Capitanelli I, Garbarino S, Pira E. Work- related stress as a cardiovascular risk factor in police officers: a systematic review of evidence. International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health. 2018;91(4):377-89.
  24. Garbarino S, Magnavita N. Work Stress and Metabolic Syndrome in Police Officers. A Prospective Study. PloS One. 2015;10(12):e0144318.
  25. Hartley TA, Burchfiel CM, Fekedulegn D, Andrew ME, Knox SS, Violanti JM. Associations between police officer stress and the metabolic syndrome. Interna- tional Journal of Emergency Mental Health. 2011;13(4): 243-56.
  26. Charles LE, Slaven JE, Mnatsakanova A, Ma C, Violanti JM, Fekedulegn D, et al. Association of perceived stress with sleep duration and sleep quality in police offi- cers. International Journal of Emergency Mental Health. 2011;13(4):229-41.
  27. Sterud T, Hem E, Ekeberg O, Lau B. Occupational stress and alcohol use: a study of two nationwide samples of operational police and ambulance, personnel in Norway. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs. 2007;68(6):896- 904.
  28. Smith DR, Devine S, Leggat PA, Ishitake T. Alcohol and tobacco consumption among police officers. The Kurume Medical Journal. 2005;52(1-2):63-5.
  29. Moher D, Liberati A, Tetzlaff J, Altman D, Group P. Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA statement. PLoS Medicine. 2009;6(7):e1000097.
  30. Milner K, Cosme S. The PICO Game: An Innovative Strategy for Teaching Step 1 in Evidence-Based Practice. Worldviews Evid Based Nurs. 2017;14(6):514-6.
  31. Twa M. Evidence-Based Clinical Practice: Ask- ing Focused Questions (PICO). Optom Vis Sci. 2016;93(10):1187-8.
  32. Herzog R, Álvarez-Pasquin M, Díaz C, Del Barrio J, Estrada J, Gil Á. Are healthcare workers' intentions to vac- cinate related to their knowledge, beliefs and attitudes? A systematic review. BMC Public Health. 2013;13:154.
  33. Tsai LCF, Nolasco CARI, Vaughn MS. Modeling job stress among police officers: interplay of work environment, counseling support, and family discus- sion with co-workers. Police Practice and Research. 2018;19(3):253-69.
  34. Griffin J, Sun I. Do Work-Family Conflict and Resiliency Mediate Police Stress and Burnout: a Study of State Police Officers. American Journal of Criminal Justice. 2017;43:354-70.
  35. Lambert EG, Qureshi H, Frank J, Keena LD, Hogan NL. The relationship of work-family conflict with job stress among Indian police officers: a research note. Police Prac- tice and Research. 2017;18(1):37-48.
  36. West C, Fekedulegn D, Andrew M, Burchfiel CM, Harlow S, Bingham CR, et al. On-Duty Nonfatal Injury that Lead to Work Absences among Police Officers and Level of Per- ceived Stress. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine. 2017;59(11):1084-8.
  37. Ma CC, Andrew ME, Fekedulegn D, Gu JK, Hartley TA, Charles LE, et al. Shift work and occupational stress in police officers. Safety and Health at Work. 2015;6(1):25-9.
  38. Maran A, Varetto A, Zedda M, Ieraci V. Occupational stress, anxiety and coping strategies in police officers. Occupational Medicine. 2015;65(6):466-73.
  39. Gerber M, Hartmann T, Brand S, Holsboer-Trachsler E, Pühse U. The relationship between shift work, perceived stress, sleep and health in Swiss police officers. Journal of Criminal Justice. 2010;38(6):1167-75.
  40. Gershon R, Barocas B, Canton A, Xianbin L, Vlahov D. Mental, physical, and behavioral outcomes associated with perceived work stress in police officers. Criminal Justice and Behavior. 2009;36(3):275-89.
  41. Collins PA, Gibbs AC. Stress in police officers: a study of the origins, prevalence and severity of stress-related symp- toms within a county police force. Occupational Medicine (Oxford, England). 2003;53(4):256-64.
  42. Deschamps F, Paganon-Badinier I, Marchand AC, Merle C. Sources and assessment of occupational stress in the police. Journal of Occupational Health. 2003;45(6):358- 64.
  43. Gershon R, Lin S, Li X. Work stress in aging police officers. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine. 2002;44(2):160-7.
  44. He N, Zhao J, Archbold CA. Gender and police stress: The convergent and divergent impact of work environment, work-family conflict, and stress coping mechanisms of female and male police officers. Policing. 2002;25(4):687- 708.
  45. Zhao J, He N, Lovrich N. Predicting Five Dimensions of Police Officer Stress: Looking More Deeply Into Orga- nizational Settings for Sources of Police Stress. Police Quarterly. 2002;5(1):43-62.
  46. Patterson MC, Poole AD, Trew KJ, Harkin N. The psy- chological and physical health of police officers retired recently from the Royal Ulster Constabulary. Irish Journal of Psychology. 2001;22(1):1-27.
  47. Violanti JM. Coping strategies among police recruits in a high-stress training environment. The Journal of Social Psychology. 1992;132(6):717-29.
  48. Luceño-Moreno L, Garcia-Albuerne Y, Talavera-Velasco B, Martin-Garcia J. Stress in Spanish police force depend- ing on occupational rank, sex, age and work-shift. Psicothema. 2016;28(4):389-93.
  49. Lu L, Liu L, Sui G, Wang L. The Associations of Job Stress and Organizational Identification with Job Satisfaction among Chinese Police Officers: The Mediating Role of Psychological Capital. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2015;12(12):15088-99.
  50. Kaur R, Chodagiri VK, Reddi NK. A psychologi- cal study of stress, personality and coping in police personnel. Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine. 2013;35(2):141-7.
  51. Selokar D, Nimbarte S, Ahana S, Gaidhane A, Wagh V. Occupational stress among police personnel of Wardha city, India. The Australasian Medical Journal. 2011;4(3):114-7.
  52. Žukauskas G, Burba B, Rukšenas O, Grigaliuniene V, Mitchell JT. A study of stress affecting police officers in Lithuania. International Journal of Emergency Mental Health. 2009;11(4):205-14.
  53. Brown JM, Campbell EA. Sources of occupational stress in the police. Work and Stress. 1990;4(4):305-18.
  54. White JW, Lawrence PS, Grubb TD, Biggerstaff C. Fac- tors of Stress among Police Officers. Criminal Justice and Behavior. 1985;12(1):111-28.
  55. Garbarino S, Chiorri C, Magnavita N. Personality traits of the Five-Factor Model are associated with work- related stress in special force police officers. International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health. 2013;87(3):295-306.
  56. Chen HC, Chou FHC, Chen MC, Su SF, Wang SY, Feng WW, et al. A survey of quality of life and depression for police officers in Kaohsiung, Taiwan. Quality of Life Research. 2006;15(5):925-32.
  57. Miller L. Stress and resilience in law enforcement training and practice. International Journal of Emergency Mental Health. 2008;10(2):109-24.
  58. Coyne J, DeLongis A. Going beyond social support: the role of social relationships in adaptation. Journal of Con- sulting and Clinical Psychology. 1986;54(4):454-60.
  59. Whisman M, Bruce M. Marital dissatisfaction and inci- dence of major depressive episode in a community sample. Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 1999;108(4):674-8.
  60. Teo A, Choi H, Valenstein M. Social relationships and depression: Ten-year follow-up from a nationally repre- sentative study. PloS One. 2013;8(4):e62396.
  61. Galea S, Ahern J, Resnick H, Kilpatrick D, Bucuvalas M, Gold J, et al. Psychological sequelae of the September 11 terrorist attacks in New York City. The New England Journal of Medicine. 2002;346(13):982-7.
  62. Wolfe J, Schnurr PP, Brown PJ, Furey J. Posttraumatic stress disorder and war-zone exposure as correlates of perceived health in female Vietnam War veterans. Jour- nal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 1994;62(6): 1235-40.
  63. Hartley TA, Violanti JM, Sarkisian K, Andrew ME, Burchfiel CM. PTSD symptoms among police officers: associations with frequency, recency, and types of trau- matic events. International Journal of Emergency Mental Health. 2013;15(4):241-53.
  64. Lee JK, Choi HG, Kim JY, Nam J, Kang HT, Koh SB, et al. Self-resilience as a protective factor against devel- opment of post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms in police officers. Annals of Occupational and Environmental Medicine. 2016;28.
  65. Giorgi G, Arcangeli G, Perminiene M, Lorini C, Ariza- Montes A, Fiz-Perez J, et al. Work-Related Stress in the Banking Sector: A Review of Incidence, Corre- lated Factors, and Major Consequences. Front Psychol. 2017;8:2166.
  66. Lord VB. An impact of community policing: Reported stressors, social support, and strain among police offi- cers in a changing police department. Journal of Criminal Justice. 1996;24(6):503-22.
  67. Anderson E, Shivakumar G. Effects of exercise and phys- ical activity on anxiety. Front Psychiatry. 2013;4:27.
  68. Broman-Fulks JJ, Storey KM. Evaluation of a brief aerobic exercise intervention for high anxiety sensitivity. Anxiety, Stress, and Coping. 2008;21(2):117-28.
  69. Smits JA, Berry AC, Rosenfield D, Powers MB, Behar E, Otto MW. Reducing anxiety sensitivity with exercise. Depress Anxiety. 2008;25(8):689-99.
  70. Strőhle A, Hofler M, Pfister H, Muller AG, Hoyer J, Wittchen HU, et al. Physical activity and prevalence and incidence of mental disorders in adolescents and young adults. Psychological Medicine. 2007;37(11):1657-66.
  71. Halverstadt A, Phares DA, Wilund KR, Goldberg AP, Hag- berg JM. Endurance exercise training raises high-density lipoprotein cholesterol and lowers small low-density lipoprotein and very low-density lipoprotein indepen- dent of body fat phenotypes in older men and women. Metabolism. 2007;56(4):444-50.
  72. Rimmele U, Zellweger BC, Marti B, Seiler R, Mohiyed- dini C, Ehlert U, et al. Trained men show lower cortisol, heart rate and psychological responses to psychosocial stress compared with untrained men. Psychoneuroen- docrinology. 2007;32(6):627-35.
  73. Jackson EM, Dishman RK. Cardiorespiratory fitness and laboratory stress: a meta-regression analysis. Psychophys- iology. 2006;43(1):57-72.
  74. Bodin T, Martinsen E. Mood and self-efficacy during acute exercise in clinical depression. A randomized, controlled study. J Sport Exerc Psychol. 2004;26(4):623-33.
  75. Katula JA, Blissmer BJ, McAuley E. Exercise intensity and self-efficacy effects on anxiety reduction in healthy, older adults. J Behav Med. 1999;22(3):233-47.
  76. Petruzzello SJ, Landers DM, Hatfield BD, Kubitz KA, Salazar W. A meta-analysis on the anxiety-reducing effects of acute and chronic exercise. Outcomes and mech- anisms. Sports Med. 1991;11(3):143-82.
  77. Merom D, Phongsavan P, Wagner R, Chey T, Marnane C, Steel Z, et al. Promoting walking as an adjunct inter- vention to group cognitive behavioral therapy for anxiety disorders-a pilot group randomized trial. Journal of Anx- iety Disorders. 2008;22(6):959-68.
  78. Broocks A, Bandelow B, Pekrun G, George A, Meyer T, Bartmann U, et al. Comparison of aerobic exer- cise, clomipramine, and placebo in the treatment of panic disorder. The American Journal of Psychiatry. 1998;155(5):603-9.
  79. Geetha P, Subbakrishna D, Channabasavanna S. Subjec- tive well being among police personnel. Indian Journal of Psychiatry. 1998;40:172-9.
  80. Johnson J, Hall E. Job strain, workplace social support and cardiovascular disease: a cross sectional study of a ran- dom sample of the Swedish working population. American Journal of Public Health. 1988;78(10):1336-42.
  81. Jaksǐć N, Brajković L, Ivezić E, Topić R, Jakovljevíc M. The role of personality traits in posttraumatic stress disor- der (PTSD). Psychiatria Danubina. 2012;24(3):256-66.
  82. Kotov R, Gamez W, Schmidt F, Watson D. Linking "big" personality traits to anxiety, depressive, and sub- stance use disorders: a meta-analysis. Psychol Bull. 2010;136(5):768-821.
  83. Francis LJ, Quigley CF, Robbins M, Lewis CA. The General Health Questionnaire and Eysenck's three- dimensional model of personality. Psychological Reports. 2005;97(1):288-90.
  84. Cohen S, Kamarck T, Mermelstein R. A global measure of perceived stress. J Health Soc Behav. 1983;24(4):385-96.
  85. Carlson D, Kacmar K, L W. Construction and initial val- idation of a multidimensional measure of work-family conflict. Journal of Vocational Behavior. 2000;56(2):249- 76.
  86. Crank JP, Regoli R, Hewitt JD, Culbertson RG. Institu- tional and organizational antecedents of role stress, work alienation, and anomie among police executives. Criminal Justice and Behavior. 1995;22(2):152-71.
  87. Beehr TA, Johnson LB, Nieva R. Occupational stress: Coping of police and their spouses. Journal of Organi- zational Behavior. 1995;16(1):3-25.
  88. Billings AG, Moos RH. The role of coping responses and social resources in attenuating the stress of life events. J Behav Med. 1981;4(2):139-57.

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Authors
Galanis, P., Fragkou, D., & Katsoulas, T. A.
Affiliations
National and Kapodistrian University of Athens (GR)
Corresponding author
Galanis, Petros
ORCID
Venue
Work
Publisher
SAGE Publications
Published
2021-04-27
Volume
68
Issue
4
Pages
1255-1272
ISSN
  • 1051-9815 (ISSN-L)
  • 1875-9270
DOI
10.3233/wor-213455
OpenAlex
W3154969952
Cited by
76
References
11
Citations by year
2026: 20 · 2025: 18 · 2024: 17 · 2023: 13 · 2022: 7 · 2021: 1
FWCI
1.49
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Locations
  • Work (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Stress and Burnout Research
  • Health Sciences › Health Professions › Occupational Therapy › Occupational Health and Burnout
  • Health Sciences › Health Professions › General Health Professions › Workplace Health and Well-being
Keywords
occupational stress, police officers, stress risk factors, job characteristics, coping strategies, personality traits, lifestyle factors, mental health screening, occupational health
MeSH terms
Adaptation, Psychological, Cross-Sectional Studies, Humans, Quality of Life, Risk Factors, Police

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review